diff --git a/pkg/raft/raft.go b/pkg/raft/raft.go
index 14de4b2ccdd2..61bd86c82878 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/raft.go
+++ b/pkg/raft/raft.go
@@ -1136,8 +1136,10 @@ func (r *raft) tickHeartbeat() {
 
 	if r.heartbeatElapsed >= r.heartbeatTimeout {
 		r.heartbeatElapsed = 0
-		if err := r.Step(pb.Message{From: r.id, Type: pb.MsgBeat}); err != nil {
-			r.logger.Debugf("error occurred during checking sending heartbeat: %v", err)
+		if !r.fortificationTracker.FortificationEnabled() {
+			if err := r.Step(pb.Message{From: r.id, Type: pb.MsgBeat}); err != nil {
+				r.logger.Debugf("error occurred during checking sending heartbeat: %v", err)
+			}
 		}
 
 		// Mark fortifying followers as recently active. We disable heartbeats when
diff --git a/pkg/raft/raft_flow_control_test.go b/pkg/raft/raft_flow_control_test.go
index d0bf705c144f..b15163b2105b 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/raft_flow_control_test.go
+++ b/pkg/raft/raft_flow_control_test.go
@@ -145,11 +145,10 @@ func TestMsgAppFlowControl(t *testing.T) {
 							r.tick()
 						}
 						ms := r.readMessages()
-						require.Len(t, ms, 3)
-						require.Equal(t, ms[0].Type, pb.MsgHeartbeat)
-						require.Equal(t, ms[1].Type, pb.MsgFortifyLeader)
-						require.Equal(t, ms[2].Type, pb.MsgApp)
-						require.Empty(t, ms[0].Entries)
+						require.Len(t, ms, 2)
+						require.Equal(t, ms[0].Type, pb.MsgFortifyLeader)
+						require.Equal(t, ms[1].Type, pb.MsgApp)
+						require.Empty(t, ms[1].Entries)
 					} else {
 						r.Step(pb.Message{From: 2, To: 1, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeatResp})
 						ms := r.readMessages()
diff --git a/pkg/raft/raft_paper_test.go b/pkg/raft/raft_paper_test.go
index 206fbfe2db25..095c69cc128f 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/raft_paper_test.go
+++ b/pkg/raft/raft_paper_test.go
@@ -104,9 +104,9 @@ func TestStartAsFollower(t *testing.T) {
 // TestLeaderBcastBeat tests that if the leader receives a heartbeat tick,
 // it will send a MsgHeartbeat with m.Index = 0, m.LogTerm=0 and empty entries
 // as heartbeat to all followers.
-// Note that if store liveness is enabled, the leader will also send a MsgApp
-// on every heartbeat interval.
 // Reference: section 5.2
+// Note that if store liveness is enabled, the leader might send a MsgApp on
+// every heartbeat interval, but it won't send a MsgHeartbeat.
 func TestLeaderBcastBeat(t *testing.T) {
 	// heartbeat interval
 	hi := 3
@@ -141,8 +141,6 @@ func TestLeaderBcastBeat(t *testing.T) {
 					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 1, Type: pb.MsgApp, Entries: r.raftLog.allEntries()},
 					{From: 1, To: 2, Term: 1, Type: pb.MsgFortifyLeader},
 					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 1, Type: pb.MsgFortifyLeader},
-					{From: 1, To: 2, Term: 1, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat},
-					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 1, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat},
 				}, msgs)
 			} else {
 				assert.Equal(t, []pb.Message{
diff --git a/pkg/raft/raft_test.go b/pkg/raft/raft_test.go
index 7a76bbf8ed08..aeb2404bbf16 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/raft_test.go
+++ b/pkg/raft/raft_test.go
@@ -1231,24 +1231,22 @@ func TestHandleHeatbeatTimeoutStoreLivenessEnabled(t *testing.T) {
 	}
 
 	msgs := sm.readMessages()
-	require.Len(t, msgs, 2)
-	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, msgs[0].Type)
-	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msgs[1].Type)
+	require.Len(t, msgs, 1)
+	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msgs[0].Type)
 
 	// On another heartbeat timeout, the leader sends a MsgApp.
 	for ticks := sm.heartbeatTimeout; ticks > 0; ticks-- {
 		sm.tick()
 	}
 	msgs = sm.readMessages()
-	require.Len(t, msgs, 2)
-	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, msgs[0].Type)
-	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msgs[1].Type)
+	require.Len(t, msgs, 1)
+	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msgs[0].Type)
 
 	// Once the leader receives a MsgAppResp, it doesn't send MsgApp.
 	sm.Step(pb.Message{
 		From:   2,
 		Type:   pb.MsgAppResp,
-		Index:  msgs[1].Index + uint64(len(msgs[1].Entries)),
+		Index:  msgs[0].Index + uint64(len(msgs[0].Entries)),
 		Commit: sm.raftLog.lastIndex(),
 	})
 
@@ -1261,8 +1259,7 @@ func TestHandleHeatbeatTimeoutStoreLivenessEnabled(t *testing.T) {
 		sm.tick()
 	}
 	msgs = sm.readMessages()
-	require.Len(t, msgs, 1)
-	assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, msgs[0].Type)
+	require.Len(t, msgs, 0)
 }
 
 // TestMsgAppRespWaitReset verifies the resume behavior of a leader
@@ -2036,7 +2033,10 @@ func TestLeaderAppResp(t *testing.T) {
 }
 
 // TestBcastBeat is when the leader receives a heartbeat tick, it should
-// send a MsgHeartbeat with m.Index = 0, m.LogTerm=0 and empty entries.
+// send a MsgHeartbeat with m.Index = 0, m.LogTerm=0 and empty entries if
+// store liveness is disabled. On the other hand, if store liveness is enabled,
+// the leader doesn't send a MsgHeartbeat but sends a MsgApp if the follower
+// needs it to catch up.
 func TestBcastBeat(t *testing.T) {
 	testutils.RunTrueAndFalse(t, "store-liveness-enabled",
 		func(t *testing.T, storeLivenessEnabled bool) {
@@ -2082,14 +2082,12 @@ func TestBcastBeat(t *testing.T) {
 				sm.tick()
 			}
 			msgs := sm.readMessages()
-			// If storeliveness is enabled, the heartbeat timeout will also send a
-			// MsgApp if it needs to. In this case since follower 2 is slow, we will
-			// send a MsgApp to it.
+			// If storeliveness is enabled, the heartbeat timeout will send a MsgApp
+			// if it needs to. In this case since follower 2 is slow, we will send a
+			// MsgApp to it.
 			if storeLivenessEnabled {
-				require.Len(t, msgs, 5)
+				require.Len(t, msgs, 3)
 				assert.Equal(t, []pb.Message{
-					{From: 1, To: 2, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat, Match: 5},
-					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat, Match: 1011},
 					{From: 1, To: 2, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgFortifyLeader},
 					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgFortifyLeader},
 					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgApp, LogTerm: 2, Index: 1011, Commit: 1000,
@@ -2101,14 +2099,14 @@ func TestBcastBeat(t *testing.T) {
 					{From: 1, To: 2, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat, Match: 5},
 					{From: 1, To: 3, Term: 2, Type: pb.MsgHeartbeat, Match: 1011},
 				}, msgs)
-			}
 
-			// Make sure that the heartbeat messages contain the expected fields.
-			for i, m := range msgs[:2] {
-				require.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, m.Type, "#%d", i)
-				require.Zero(t, m.Index, "#%d", i)
-				require.Zero(t, m.LogTerm, "#%d", i)
-				require.Empty(t, m.Entries, "#%d", i)
+				// Make sure that the heartbeat messages contain the expected fields.
+				for i, m := range msgs {
+					require.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, m.Type, "#%d", i)
+					require.Zero(t, m.Index, "#%d", i)
+					require.Zero(t, m.LogTerm, "#%d", i)
+					require.Empty(t, m.Entries, "#%d", i)
+				}
 			}
 		})
 }
@@ -2280,11 +2278,10 @@ func TestSendAppendForProgressProbeStoreLivenessEnabled(t *testing.T) {
 		assert.True(t, r.trk.Progress(2).MsgAppProbesPaused)
 
 		msg := r.readMessages()
-		assert.Len(t, msg, 3)
-		assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgHeartbeat, msg[0].Type)
-		assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgFortifyLeader, msg[1].Type)
-		assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msg[2].Type)
-		assert.Equal(t, msg[2].Index, uint64(1))
+		assert.Len(t, msg, 2)
+		assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgFortifyLeader, msg[0].Type)
+		assert.Equal(t, pb.MsgApp, msg[1].Type)
+		assert.Equal(t, msg[1].Index, uint64(1))
 		assert.True(t, r.trk.Progress(2).MsgAppProbesPaused)
 	}
 }
diff --git a/pkg/raft/rafttest/interaction_env_handler_add_nodes.go b/pkg/raft/rafttest/interaction_env_handler_add_nodes.go
index e1037d688bc2..51d4167546a0 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/rafttest/interaction_env_handler_add_nodes.go
+++ b/pkg/raft/rafttest/interaction_env_handler_add_nodes.go
@@ -18,6 +18,7 @@
 package rafttest
 
 import (
+	"context"
 	"errors"
 	"fmt"
 	"reflect"
@@ -26,6 +27,7 @@ import (
 	"github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/clusterversion"
 	"github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/raft"
 	pb "github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/raft/raftpb"
+	"github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/raft/raftstoreliveness"
 	"github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/roachpb"
 	"github.com/cockroachdb/cockroach/pkg/settings/cluster"
 	"github.com/cockroachdb/datadriven"
@@ -138,14 +140,19 @@ func (env *InteractionEnv) AddNodes(n int, cfg raft.Config, snap pb.Snapshot) er
 		cfg := cfg // fork the config stub
 		cfg.ID, cfg.Storage = id, s
 
-		cfg.StoreLiveness = newStoreLiveness(env.Fabric, id)
-
 		// If the node creating command hasn't specified the CRDBVersion, use the
 		// latest one.
 		if cfg.CRDBVersion == nil {
 			cfg.CRDBVersion = cluster.MakeTestingClusterSettings().Version
 		}
 
+		// Disable store liveness if the CRDB version is less than 24.3.
+		if cfg.CRDBVersion.IsActive(context.TODO(), clusterversion.V24_3_StoreLivenessEnabled) {
+			cfg.StoreLiveness = newStoreLiveness(env.Fabric, id)
+		} else {
+			cfg.StoreLiveness = raftstoreliveness.Disabled{}
+		}
+
 		if env.Options.OnConfig != nil {
 			env.Options.OnConfig(&cfg)
 			if cfg.ID != id {
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/async_storage_writes_append_aba_race.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/async_storage_writes_append_aba_race.txt
index ec65a539b1db..99900880af2c 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/async_storage_writes_append_aba_race.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/async_storage_writes_append_aba_race.txt
@@ -408,12 +408,6 @@ process-ready 4
 ----
 Ready MustSync=false:
 Messages:
-4->1 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-4->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-4->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-4->5 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-4->6 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-4->7 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
 4->1 MsgFortifyLeader Term:3 Log:0/0
 4->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:3 Log:0/0
 4->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:3 Log:0/0
@@ -432,10 +426,9 @@ Messages:
 
 deliver-msgs 1
 ----
-4->1 MsgHeartbeat Term:3 Log:0/0
-INFO 1 [term: 2] received a MsgHeartbeat message with higher term from 4 [term: 3]
-INFO 1 became follower at term 3
 4->1 MsgFortifyLeader Term:3 Log:0/0
+INFO 1 [term: 2] received a MsgFortifyLeader message with higher term from 4 [term: 3]
+INFO 1 became follower at term 3
 4->1 MsgApp Term:3 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""]
 INFO found conflict at index 12 [existing term: 2, conflicting term: 3]
 INFO replace the unstable entries from index 12
@@ -447,7 +440,6 @@ HardState Term:3 Commit:11 Lead:4 LeadEpoch:1
 Entries:
 3/12 EntryNormal ""
 Messages:
-1->4 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:3 Log:0/0
 1->AppendThread MsgStorageAppend Term:3 Log:3/12 Commit:11 Lead:4 LeadEpoch:1 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""] Responses:[
   1->4 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:3 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:1
   1->4 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:11
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/checkquorum.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/checkquorum.txt
index 0224784413bd..2ecd54f9306a 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/checkquorum.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/checkquorum.txt
@@ -77,47 +77,27 @@ stabilize
   State:StateFollower
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
@@ -127,20 +107,10 @@ stabilize
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
@@ -154,21 +124,6 @@ stabilize
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
   INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgFortifyLeaderResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader.txt
index cdac64e8499b..754c53977891 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader.txt
@@ -93,7 +93,24 @@ raft-state
 3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
 4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
 
-# When receiving a heartbeat from the leader, they revert to followers.
+# Give store liveness support to allow MsgFortifyLeader to be sent.
+grant-support 2 1
+----
+  1 2 3 4
+1 2 1 1 1
+2 2 1 1 1
+3 1 1 1 1
+4 x 1 1 1
+
+grant-support 4 1
+----
+  1 2 3 4
+1 2 1 1 1
+2 2 1 1 1
+3 1 1 1 1
+4 2 1 1 1
+
+# When receiving MsgFortifyLeader from the leader, they revert to followers.
 tick-heartbeat 1
 ----
 ok
@@ -101,11 +118,11 @@ ok
 stabilize
 ----
 > 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->4 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->4 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
@@ -113,41 +130,50 @@ stabilize
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
 > 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 4 receiving messages
-  1->4 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->4 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
 > 4 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
-  HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  4->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  4->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  4->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
+  4->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
 
 raft-state
 ----
-1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
-2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
-4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
+
+withdraw-support 2 1
+----
+  1 2 3 4
+1 2 1 1 1
+2 x 1 1 1
+3 1 1 1 1
+4 2 1 1 1
 
 withdraw-support 3 1
 ----
   1 2 3 4
-1 1 1 1 1
+1 2 1 1 1
+2 x 1 1 1
+3 x 1 1 1
+4 2 1 1 1
+
+withdraw-support 4 1
+----
+  1 2 3 4
+1 2 1 1 1
 2 x 1 1 1
 3 x 1 1 1
 4 x 1 1 1
@@ -162,10 +188,10 @@ INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 2 at term 2
 
 raft-state
 ----
-1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
-2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 3: StateCandidate (Voter) Term:2 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
-4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 
 forget-leader 3
 ----
@@ -173,10 +199,10 @@ ok
 
 raft-state
 ----
-1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
-2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 3: StateCandidate (Voter) Term:2 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
-4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 
 stabilize log-level=none
 ----
@@ -202,7 +228,7 @@ ok
 withdraw-support 2 3
 ----
   1 2 3 4
-1 1 1 1 1
+1 2 1 1 1
 2 x 1 x 1
 3 x 1 1 1
 4 x 1 1 1
@@ -224,7 +250,7 @@ INFO 2 forgetting leader 3 at term 2
 withdraw-support 1 3
 ----
   1 2 3 4
-1 1 1 x 1
+1 2 1 x 1
 2 x 1 x 1
 3 x 1 1 1
 4 x 1 1 1
@@ -232,7 +258,7 @@ withdraw-support 1 3
 withdraw-support 3 3
 ----
   1 2 3 4
-1 1 1 x 1
+1 2 1 x 1
 2 x 1 x 1
 3 x 1 x 1
 4 x 1 1 1
@@ -240,7 +266,7 @@ withdraw-support 3 3
 withdraw-support 4 3
 ----
   1 2 3 4
-1 1 1 x 1
+1 2 1 x 1
 2 x 1 x 1
 3 x 1 x 1
 4 x 1 x 1
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt
index 4dfadf98e8ff..770f040a98fb 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt
@@ -57,7 +57,14 @@ INFO 1 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgPreVote from 3 [logterm: 1, i
 3->2 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
 INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgPreVote from 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3) and supporting fortified leader 1 at epoch 1
 
-# Make 1 assert leadership over 3 again.
+grant-support 3 1
+----
+  1 2 3
+1 2 1 1
+2 1 1 1
+3 2 1 1
+
+# Make 1 assert leadership over 3 again by sending MsgFortifyLeader.
 tick-heartbeat 1
 ----
 ok
@@ -65,34 +72,34 @@ ok
 stabilize
 ----
 > 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   INFO 3 became follower at term 1
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   State:StateFollower
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
 
 raft-state
 ----
-1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
-3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
+
+withdraw-support 3 1
+----
+  1 2 3
+1 2 1 1
+2 1 1 1
+3 x 1 1
 
 # ForgetLeader is ignored if the follower is supporting the leader's store
 # liveness epoch.
@@ -103,7 +110,7 @@ INFO 2 [term 1] ignored MsgForgetLeader from 0 due to leader fortification
 withdraw-support 2 1
 ----
   1 2 3
-1 1 1 1
+1 2 1 1
 2 x 1 1
 3 x 1 1
 
@@ -115,9 +122,9 @@ INFO 2 forgetting leader 1 at term 1
 
 raft-state
 ----
-1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
-3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 
 campaign 3
 ----
@@ -210,7 +217,7 @@ stabilize 2
 withdraw-support 2 3
 ----
   1 2 3
-1 1 1 1
+1 2 1 1
 2 x 1 x
 3 x 1 1
 
@@ -227,7 +234,7 @@ raft-log 1
 withdraw-support 1 3
 ----
   1 2 3
-1 1 1 x
+1 2 1 x
 2 x 1 x
 3 x 1 1
 
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_timeout_recovers_from_probing.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_timeout_recovers_from_probing.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..f8e10e61dd3d
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_timeout_recovers_from_probing.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,70 @@
+# This test checks that if a fully caught-up follower transitions
+# into StateProbe (for example due to a call to ReportUnreachable), the
+# leader will react to a subsequent heartbeat response from the probing
+# follower by sending an empty MsgApp, the response of which restores
+# StateReplicate for the follower. In other words, we don't end up in
+# a stable state with a fully caught up follower in StateProbe.
+
+# Turn off output during the setup of the test.
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 3 voters=(1,2,3) index=10
+----
+ok
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+
+# On the first replica, report the second one as not reachable.
+report-unreachable 1 2
+----
+DEBUG 1 failed to send message to 2 because it is unreachable [StateProbe match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11]
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateProbe match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+# HeartbeatTimeout -> MsgApp -> MsgAppResp -> StateReplicate.
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit.txt
index 15e6a1844337..7b88d9061d9a 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit.txt
@@ -132,8 +132,6 @@ process-ready 1
 ----
 Ready MustSync=false:
 Messages:
-1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
 
 # Since the leader sends a MsgApp on the heartbeat timeout, it takes this long
@@ -146,7 +144,6 @@ Messages:
 stabilize 1 3
 ----
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
@@ -155,20 +152,6 @@ stabilize 1 3
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 receiving messages
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
 > 1 receiving messages
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit_no_store_liveness_support.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit_no_store_liveness_support.txt
index 03e7a41ca5dc..2b0c5f35a3b8 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit_no_store_liveness_support.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/lagging_commit_no_store_liveness_support.txt
@@ -132,10 +132,7 @@ ok
 # send a MsgApp because follower 3 doesn't support the leader.
 process-ready 1
 ----
-Ready MustSync=false:
-Messages:
-1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+<empty Ready>
 
 # Now that follower 3's store supports the leader's store, will send a MsgApp on
 # the next heartbeat timeout.
@@ -155,26 +152,14 @@ process-ready 1
 Ready MustSync=true:
 HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
 Messages:
-1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
 
 stabilize
 ----
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:2
@@ -182,30 +167,8 @@ stabilize
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:2
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 receiving messages
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/checkquorum.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/checkquorum.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..e1a82d7c6b44
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/checkquorum.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,251 @@
+# Tests that CheckQuorum causes a leader to step down if it hasn't heard from a
+# quorum of followers in the past election timeout interval.
+#
+# Also tests that votes are rejected when there is a current leader. In the Raft
+# thesis this is part of PreVote, but etcd/raft enables this via CheckQuorum.
+
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test checkquorum outside the mixedversions directory that assumes
+# that assumes that store liveness is enabled.
+
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+# Start 3 nodes, two of them has the older version 24.2.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 checkquorum=true crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 1 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 checkquorum=true crdb-version=24.3
+----
+ok
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+bump-epoch 1
+----
+ok
+
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+# Campaigning will fail when there is an active leader.
+campaign 2
+----
+INFO 2 is starting a new election at term 1
+INFO 2 became candidate at term 2
+INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 1 at term 2
+INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 3 at term 2
+
+stabilize
+----
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StateCandidate
+  HardState Term:2 Vote:2 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  2->3 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 2 received MsgVoteResp from 2 at term 2
+  INFO 2 has received 1 MsgVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 1 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgVote from 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3)
+> 3 receiving messages
+  2->3 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgVote from 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3)
+
+# Tick the leader without processing any messages from followers. We have to
+# tick 2 election timeouts, since the followers were active in the current
+# interval (see messages above).
+tick-election 1
+----
+DEBUG 1 does not have store liveness support from a quorum of peers
+
+tick-election 1
+----
+DEBUG 1 has not received messages from a quorum of peers in the last election timeout
+DEBUG 1 does not have store liveness support from a quorum of peers
+WARN 1 stepped down to follower since quorum is not active
+INFO 1 became follower at term 1
+
+# We'll now send all of the heartbeats that were buffered during the ticks
+# above. Conceptually, "the network was slow".
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  State:StateFollower
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 1] received a MsgAppResp message with higher term from 2 [term: 2]
+  INFO 1 became follower at term 2
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 1 [term: 2] ignored a MsgHeartbeatResp message with lower term from 3 [term: 1]
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:2 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# Other nodes can now successfully campaign. Note that we haven't ticked 3, so
+# it won't grant votes.
+campaign 2
+----
+INFO 2 is starting a new election at term 2
+INFO 2 became candidate at term 3
+INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 1 at term 3
+INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 3 at term 3
+
+process-ready 2
+----
+Ready MustSync=true:
+HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+Messages:
+2->1 MsgVote Term:3 Log:1/11
+2->3 MsgVote Term:3 Log:1/11
+INFO 2 received MsgVoteResp from 2 at term 3
+INFO 2 has received 1 MsgVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+
+deliver-msgs 1
+----
+2->1 MsgVote Term:3 Log:1/11
+INFO 1 [term: 2] received a MsgVote message with higher term from 2 [term: 3]
+INFO 1 became follower at term 3
+INFO 1 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 0] cast MsgVote for 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 3
+
+deliver-msgs 3
+----
+2->3 MsgVote Term:3 Log:1/11
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgVote from 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3)
+
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgVoteResp Term:3 Log:0/0
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgVoteResp Term:3 Log:0/0
+  INFO 2 received MsgVoteResp from 1 at term 3
+  INFO 2 has received 2 MsgVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+  INFO 2 became leader at term 3
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StateLeader
+  HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:11 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  Entries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgApp Term:3 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""]
+  2->3 MsgApp Term:3 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""]
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgApp Term:3 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""]
+> 3 receiving messages
+  2->3 MsgApp Term:3 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[3/12 EntryNormal ""]
+  INFO 3 [term: 1] received a MsgApp message with higher term from 2 [term: 3]
+  INFO 3 became follower at term 3
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:11 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  Entries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Commit:11 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  Entries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  3->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+  3->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:12 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgApp Term:3 Log:3/12 Commit:12
+  2->3 MsgApp Term:3 Log:3/12 Commit:12
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgApp Term:3 Log:3/12 Commit:12
+> 3 receiving messages
+  2->3 MsgApp Term:3 Log:3/12 Commit:12
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Vote:2 Commit:12 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:12
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:3 Commit:12 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  3/12 EntryNormal ""
+  Messages:
+  3->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:12
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:12
+  3->2 MsgAppResp Term:3 Log:0/12 Commit:12
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..57e4fedb51ca
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,202 @@
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test forget_leader outside the mixedversions directory that assumes
+# that store liveness is enabled.
+
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+# Start 4 nodes, two of them has the older version 24.2.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) learners=(4) index=10 crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) learners=(4) index=10 crdb-version=24.3
+----
+ok
+
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+# ForgetLeader is a noop on the leader.
+forget-leader 1
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# ForgetLeader causes a follower to forget its leader, but remain in the current
+# term. It's a noop if it's called again.
+forget-leader 2
+----
+INFO 2 forgetting leader 1 at term 1
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+forget-leader 2
+----
+INFO 2 no leader at term 1; dropping forget leader msg
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# ForgetLeader also works on learners.
+forget-leader 4
+----
+INFO 4 forgetting leader 1 at term 1
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# When receiving a heartbeat from the leader, they revert to followers.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->4 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+> 4 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 4 receiving messages
+  1->4 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 4 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  4->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  4->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# ForgetLeader is a noop on candidates.
+campaign 3
+----
+INFO 3 is starting a new election at term 1
+INFO 3 became candidate at term 2
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 1 at term 2
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 2 at term 2
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateCandidate (Voter) Term:2 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+forget-leader 3
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateCandidate (Voter) Term:2 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+stabilize log-level=none
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateLeader (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# ForgetLeader shouldn't affect the election timeout: if a follower
+# forgets the leader 1 tick before the election timeout fires, it
+# will still campaign on the next tick.
+set-randomized-election-timeout 2 timeout=3
+----
+ok
+
+tick-heartbeat 2
+----
+ok
+
+tick-heartbeat 2
+----
+ok
+
+forget-leader 2
+----
+INFO 2 forgetting leader 3 at term 2
+
+tick-heartbeat 2
+----
+INFO 2 is starting a new election at term 2
+INFO 2 became candidate at term 3
+INFO 2 [logterm: 2, index: 12] sent MsgVote request to 1 at term 3
+INFO 2 [logterm: 2, index: 12] sent MsgVote request to 3 at term 3
+
+stabilize log-level=none
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateFollower (Voter) Term:3 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateLeader (Voter) Term:3 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:3 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
+4: StateFollower (Non-Voter) Term:3 Lead:2 LeadEpoch:0
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..48afd9c9d6b4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,249 @@
+# Tests that a follower with PreVote+CheckQuorum can forget the leader, allowing
+# it to grant prevotes despite having heard from the leader recently.
+#
+# Also tests that forgetting the leader still won't grant prevotes to a
+# replica that isn't up-to-date.
+
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test forget_leader_prevote_checkquorum outside the mixedversions
+# directory that assumes that store liveness is enabled.
+
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+# Start 3 nodes, two of them has the older version 24.2.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 prevote=true checkquorum=true crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 1 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 prevote=true checkquorum=true crdb-version=24.3
+----
+ok
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+# If 3 attempts to campaign, 2 rejects it because it has a leader.
+campaign 3
+----
+INFO 3 is starting a new election at term 1
+INFO 3 became pre-candidate at term 1
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgPreVote request to 1 at term 1
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgPreVote request to 2 at term 1
+
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StatePreCandidate
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  3->2 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 3 received MsgPreVoteResp from 3 at term 1
+  INFO 3 has received 1 MsgPreVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+
+deliver-msgs 1 2
+----
+3->1 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+INFO 1 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgPreVote from 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3)
+3->2 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] ignored MsgPreVote from 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1: recently received communication from leader (remaining ticks: 3)
+
+# Make 1 assert leadership over 3 again.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  INFO 3 became follower at term 1
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StateFollower
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# If 2 forgets the leader, then 3 can obtain prevotes and hold an election
+# despite 2 having heard from the leader recently.
+forget-leader 2
+----
+INFO 2 forgetting leader 1 at term 1
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateLeader (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateFollower (Voter) Term:1 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+
+campaign 3
+----
+INFO 3 is starting a new election at term 1
+INFO 3 became pre-candidate at term 1
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgPreVote request to 1 at term 1
+INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgPreVote request to 2 at term 1
+
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StatePreCandidate
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  3->2 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 3 received MsgPreVoteResp from 3 at term 1
+  INFO 3 has received 1 MsgPreVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+
+stabilize 2
+----
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+> 2 receiving messages
+  3->2 MsgPreVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 2 [logterm: 1, index: 11, vote: 1] cast MsgPreVote for 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] at term 1
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->3 MsgPreVoteResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 receiving messages
+  2->3 MsgPreVoteResp Term:2 Log:0/0
+  INFO 3 received MsgPreVoteResp from 2 at term 1
+  INFO 3 has received 2 MsgPreVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+  INFO 3 became candidate at term 2
+  INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 1 at term 2
+  INFO 3 [logterm: 1, index: 11] sent MsgVote request to 2 at term 2
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  State:StateCandidate
+  HardState Term:2 Vote:3 Commit:11 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  3->2 MsgVote Term:2 Log:1/11
+  INFO 3 received MsgVoteResp from 3 at term 2
+  INFO 3 has received 1 MsgVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+
+stabilize log-level=none
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateLeader (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+
+# Test that forgetting the leader still won't grant prevotes if the candidate
+# isn't up-to-date. We first replicate a proposal on 3 and 2.
+propose 3 prop_1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  Entries:
+  2/13 EntryNormal "prop_1"
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgApp Term:2 Log:2/12 Commit:12 Entries:[2/13 EntryNormal "prop_1"]
+  3->2 MsgApp Term:2 Log:2/12 Commit:12 Entries:[2/13 EntryNormal "prop_1"]
+
+stabilize 2
+----
+> 2 receiving messages
+  3->2 MsgApp Term:2 Log:2/12 Commit:12 Entries:[2/13 EntryNormal "prop_1"]
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  Entries:
+  2/13 EntryNormal "prop_1"
+  Messages:
+  2->3 MsgAppResp Term:2 Log:0/13 Commit:12
+
+forget-leader 2
+----
+INFO 2 forgetting leader 3 at term 2
+
+# 1 is now behind on its log. It tries to campaign, but fails.
+raft-log 1
+----
+1/11 EntryNormal ""
+2/12 EntryNormal ""
+
+campaign 1
+----
+INFO 1 is starting a new election at term 2
+INFO 1 became pre-candidate at term 2
+INFO 1 [logterm: 2, index: 12] sent MsgPreVote request to 2 at term 2
+INFO 1 [logterm: 2, index: 12] sent MsgPreVote request to 3 at term 2
+
+process-ready 1
+----
+Ready MustSync=true:
+State:StatePreCandidate
+HardState Term:2 Commit:12 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+Messages:
+1->2 MsgPreVote Term:3 Log:2/12
+1->3 MsgPreVote Term:3 Log:2/12
+INFO 1 received MsgPreVoteResp from 1 at term 2
+INFO 1 has received 1 MsgPreVoteResp votes and 0 vote rejections
+
+stabilize 2
+----
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:2 Vote:3 Commit:12 Lead:0 LeadEpoch:0
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgPreVote Term:3 Log:2/12
+  INFO 2 [logterm: 2, index: 13, vote: 3] rejected MsgPreVote from 1 [logterm: 2, index: 12] at term 2
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgPreVoteResp Term:2 Log:0/0 Rejected (Hint: 0)
+
+stabilize log-level=none
+----
+ok
+
+raft-state
+----
+1: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+2: StateFollower (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
+3: StateLeader (Voter) Term:2 Lead:3 LeadEpoch:0
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt
similarity index 76%
rename from pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt
rename to pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt
index ba034b8b166f..539e0b54b724 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/heartbeat_resp_recovers_from_probing.txt
@@ -5,12 +5,21 @@
 # StateReplicate for the follower. In other words, we don't end up in
 # a stable state with a fully caught up follower in StateProbe.
 
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test heartbeat_timeout_recovers_from_probing outside the
+# mixedversions directory that assumes that store liveness is enabled.
+
 # Turn off output during the setup of the test.
 log-level none
 ----
 ok
 
-add-nodes 3 voters=(1,2,3) index=10
+# Start 3 nodes, two of them has the older version 24.2.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 1 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 crdb-version=24.3
 ----
 ok
 
@@ -47,32 +56,28 @@ tick-heartbeat 1
 ----
 ok
 
-# Heartbeat -> MsgApp -> MsgAppResp -> StateReplicate.
+# Heartbeat -> HeartbeatResp -> MsgApp -> MsgAppResp -> StateReplicate.
 stabilize
 ----
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
 > 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
   2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
   3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 1 receiving messages
   2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
   3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/lagging_commit.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/lagging_commit.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..9472f409d19b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/lagging_commit.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,183 @@
+# This test demonstrates the effect of delayed commit on a follower node after a
+# network hiccup between the leader and this follower.
+
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test lagging_commit outside the mixedversions directory that assumes
+# that store liveness is enabled.
+
+# Skip logging the boilerplate. Set up a raft group of 3 nodes, and elect node 1
+# as the leader. Nodes 2 and 3 are the followers.
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+# Start 3 nodes, two of them has the older version 24.2.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+add-nodes 1 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 crdb-version=24.3
+----
+ok
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+# Propose a couple of entries.
+propose 1 data1
+----
+ok
+
+propose 1 data2
+----
+ok
+
+process-ready 1
+----
+ok
+
+# The interesting part starts below.
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+deliver-msgs 2 3
+----
+1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[1/12 EntryNormal "data1"]
+1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/12 Commit:11 Entries:[1/13 EntryNormal "data2"]
+1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:11 Entries:[1/12 EntryNormal "data1"]
+1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/12 Commit:11 Entries:[1/13 EntryNormal "data2"]
+
+process-ready 3
+----
+Ready MustSync=true:
+Entries:
+1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
+1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
+Messages:
+3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:11
+
+# Suppose there is a network blip which prevents the leader learning that the
+# follower 3 has appended the proposed entries to the log.
+deliver-msgs drop=(1)
+----
+dropped: 3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+dropped: 3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:11
+
+# In the meantime, the entries are committed, and the leader sends the commit
+# index to all the followers.
+stabilize 1 2
+----
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  Entries:
+  1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
+  1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:11
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/12 Commit:11
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:11
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
+  1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
+  Messages:
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:12
+  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:12
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:12
+  1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
+  1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:12
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:12
+  2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
+
+# The network blip prevents the follower 3 from learning that the previously
+# appended entries are now committed.
+deliver-msgs drop=(3)
+----
+dropped: 1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:12
+dropped: 1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+
+# The network blip ends here.
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=13 next=14 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+2: StateReplicate match=13 next=14 sentCommit=13 matchCommit=13
+3: StateReplicate match=11 next=14 sentCommit=13 matchCommit=11 inflight=2
+
+# The leader still observes that the entries are in-flight to the follower 3,
+# since it hasn't heard from it. Nothing triggers updating the follower's
+# commit index, so we have to wait up to the full heartbeat interval before
+# the leader sends the commit index.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+# However, the leader does not push the real commit index to the follower 3. It
+# cuts the commit index at the Progress.Match mark, because it thinks that it is
+# unsafe to send a commit index higher than that.
+process-ready 1
+----
+Ready MustSync=false:
+Messages:
+1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:13
+1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+
+# Since the heartbeat message does not bump the follower's commit index, it will
+# take another roundtrip with the leader to update it. As such, the total time
+# it takes for the follower to learn the commit index is:
+#
+#   delay = HeartbeatInterval + 3/2 * RTT
+#
+# This is suboptimal. It could have taken HeartbeatInterval + 1/2 * RTT, if the
+# leader sent the up-to-date commit index in the heartbeat message.
+#
+# See https://github.com/etcd-io/raft/issues/138 which aims to fix this.
+stabilize 1 3
+----
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 receiving messages
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  CommittedEntries:
+  1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
+  1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
+> 1 receiving messages
+  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index_leader_old_version.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/msg_app_commit_index_leader.txt
similarity index 96%
rename from pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index_leader_old_version.txt
rename to pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/msg_app_commit_index_leader.txt
index 53d6de30a943..330335388e62 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index_leader_old_version.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/msg_app_commit_index_leader.txt
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ stabilize 1 2
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:11
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
   CommittedEntries:
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
@@ -99,7 +99,7 @@ stabilize 1 2
   1->2 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
   CommittedEntries:
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
@@ -150,7 +150,7 @@ stabilize 1 2 3
   2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
-  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
+  HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
   CommittedEntries:
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
new file mode 100644
index 000000000000..3b2cbf48aab4
--- /dev/null
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/mixedversions/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
@@ -0,0 +1,150 @@
+# TestSnapshotSucceedViaAppResp regression tests the situation in which a snap-
+# shot is sent to a follower at the most recent index (i.e. the snapshot index
+# is the leader's last index is the committed index). In that situation, a bug
+# in the past left the follower in probing status until the next log entry was
+# committed.
+#
+# See https://github.com/etcd-io/etcd/pull/10308 for additional background.
+
+# TODO(ibrahim): Remove this test once store liveness is on by default since we
+# have the test snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp outside the mixedversions
+# directory that assumes that store liveness is enabled.
+
+# Turn off output during the setup of the test.
+log-level none
+----
+ok
+
+# Start with two nodes with version 24.2, but the config already has a third.
+add-nodes 2 voters=(1,2,3) index=10 crdb-version=24.2
+----
+ok
+
+campaign 1
+----
+ok
+
+# Fully replicate everything, including the leader's empty index.
+stabilize
+----
+ok
+
+compact 1 11
+----
+ok
+
+# Drop inflight messages to n3.
+deliver-msgs drop=(3)
+----
+ok
+
+# Show the Raft log messages from now on.
+log-level debug
+----
+ok
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateProbe match=0 next=11 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=0 paused inactive
+
+# Add the node that will receive a snapshot (it has no state at all, does not
+# even have a config).
+add-nodes 1
+----
+INFO 3 switched to configuration voters=()
+INFO 3 became follower at term 0
+INFO newRaft 3 [peers: [], term: 0, commit: 0, applied: 0, lastindex: 0, lastterm: 0]
+
+# Time passes on the leader so that it will try the previously missing follower
+# again.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+process-ready 1
+----
+Ready MustSync=false:
+Messages:
+1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+
+# Iterate until no more work is done by the new peer. It receives the heartbeat
+# and responds.
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 3 [term: 0] received a MsgHeartbeat message with higher term from 1 [term: 1]
+  INFO 3 became follower at term 1
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Commit:0 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+
+# The leader in turn will realize that n3 needs a snapshot, which it initiates.
+stabilize 1
+----
+> 1 receiving messages
+  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+  DEBUG 1 [firstindex: 12, commit: 11] sent snapshot[index: 11, term: 1] to 3 [StateProbe match=0 next=11 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=0]
+  DEBUG 1 paused sending replication messages to 3 [StateSnapshot match=0 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=0 paused pendingSnap=11]
+> 1 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
+    Snapshot: Index:11 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateSnapshot match=0 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=0 paused pendingSnap=11
+
+# Follower applies the snapshot. Note how it reacts with a MsgAppResp upon completion.
+# The snapshot fully catches the follower up (i.e. there are no more log entries it
+# needs to apply after). The bug was that the leader failed to realize that the follower
+# was now fully caught up.
+stabilize 3
+----
+> 3 receiving messages
+  1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
+    Snapshot: Index:11 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
+  INFO log [committed=0, applied=0, applying=0, unstable.offset=1, unstable.offsetInProgress=1, len(unstable.Entries)=0] starts to restore snapshot [index: 11, term: 1]
+  INFO 3 switched to configuration voters=(1 2 3)
+  INFO 3 [commit: 11, lastindex: 11, lastterm: 1] restored snapshot [index: 11, term: 1]
+  INFO 3 [commit: 11] restored snapshot [index: 11, term: 1]
+> 3 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=true:
+  HardState Term:1 Commit:11 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:0
+  Snapshot Index:11 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
+  Messages:
+  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
+
+# The MsgAppResp lets the leader move the follower back to replicating state.
+# Leader sends another MsgAppResp, to communicate the updated commit index.
+stabilize 1
+----
+> 1 receiving messages
+  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/11 Commit:11
+  DEBUG 1 recovered from needing snapshot, resumed sending replication messages to 3 [StateSnapshot match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11 paused pendingSnap=11]
+
+status 1
+----
+1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
+2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
+
+# Let things settle.
+stabilize
+----
+> 2 receiving messages
+  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0 Commit:11
+> 2 handling Ready
+  Ready MustSync=false:
+  Messages:
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+> 1 receiving messages
+  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index.txt
index d464faa2fe8e..e43df6613a04 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/msg_app_commit_index.txt
@@ -122,8 +122,6 @@ process-ready 1
 ----
 Ready MustSync=false:
 Messages:
-1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
 
 # On the next MsgApp sent to follower 3, the leader will include that the
@@ -131,15 +129,8 @@ Messages:
 # because it knows that it has the latest commit index.
 stabilize 1 2 3
 ----
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:13 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
@@ -147,53 +138,10 @@ stabilize 1 2 3
   1/12 EntryNormal "data1"
   1/13 EntryNormal "data2"
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/13 Commit:13
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
 > 1 receiving messages
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/13 Commit:13
 
-# If the commit index is up-to-date, no MsgApp will be sent.
-tick-heartbeat 1
-----
-ok
-
-stabilize 1 2 3
-----
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-
 # The leader's sentCommit and the matchCommit remain stale even after stabilize.
 # The reason is that the leader send itself a MsgAppResp when it receives a
 # MsgProp. However, the leader doesn't send itself a MsgAppResp when it
@@ -204,3 +152,12 @@ status 1
 1: StateReplicate match=13 next=14 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
 2: StateReplicate match=13 next=14 sentCommit=13 matchCommit=13
 3: StateReplicate match=13 next=14 sentCommit=13 matchCommit=13
+
+# If the commit index is up-to-date, no MsgApp will be sent.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+ok
+
+stabilize 1 2 3
+----
+ok
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/refortification_basic.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/refortification_basic.txt
index 56369ceff4db..2077fe5c7621 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/refortification_basic.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/refortification_basic.txt
@@ -149,19 +149,15 @@ stabilize
   2->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/3 Commit:3
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/3 Commit:3
 
-# On the next heartbeat, the leader still won't send a MsgFortifyLeader to
-# follower 3 because it doesn't support it in the store liveness fabric.
+# On the next heartbeat timeout, the leader still won't send a MsgFortifyLeader
+# to follower 3 because it doesn't support it in the store liveness fabric.
 tick-heartbeat 1
 ----
 ok
 
 stabilize 1
 ----
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
+ok
 
 grant-support 3 1
 ----
@@ -181,33 +177,15 @@ stabilize
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:3 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:3
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:3
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:3
 
 # If the follower supports the leader at an older epoch, the leader will try
@@ -229,32 +207,24 @@ stabilize
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:3 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:4
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->2 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 2 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:3 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:3
   Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:3
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:3 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:4
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:4
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   2->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:3
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:4
 
 # If no follower needs to be refortified, the leader won't send any
@@ -265,23 +235,4 @@ ok
 
 stabilize
 ----
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 3 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
+ok
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/replicate_pause.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/replicate_pause.txt
index 75d8fbdd27a7..84b2cb2ad452 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/replicate_pause.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/replicate_pause.txt
@@ -133,42 +133,29 @@ stabilize 1
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/14 Commit:17
 
 # Node 3 finally receives a MsgApp, but there was a gap, so it rejects it.
 stabilize 2 3
 ----
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/14 Commit:17
   DEBUG 3 [logterm: 0, index: 14] rejected MsgApp [logterm: 1, index: 14] from 1
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:1/14 Rejected (Hint: 11) Commit:11
 
 # Node 1 receives the rejection and adjusts the MsgApp sent to node 3.
 stabilize 1
 ----
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:1/14 Rejected (Hint: 11) Commit:11
   DEBUG 1 received MsgAppResp(rejected, hint: (index 11, term 1)) from 3 for index 14
   DEBUG 1 decreased progress of 3 to [StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11 paused inflight=3[full]]
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/14 Commit:17
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:17 Entries:[
     1/12 EntryNormal "prop_1_12"
     1/13 EntryNormal "prop_1_13"
@@ -181,8 +168,6 @@ stabilize 1
 stabilize 1 3
 ----
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/14 Commit:17
-  DEBUG 3 [logterm: 0, index: 14] rejected MsgApp [logterm: 1, index: 14] from 1
   1->3 MsgApp Term:1 Log:1/11 Commit:17 Entries:[
     1/12 EntryNormal "prop_1_12"
     1/13 EntryNormal "prop_1_13"
@@ -209,11 +194,8 @@ stabilize 1 3
   1/16 EntryNormal "prop_1_16"
   1/17 EntryNormal "prop_1_17"
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:1/14 Rejected (Hint: 11) Commit:11
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/17 Commit:17
 > 1 receiving messages
-  3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:1/14 Rejected (Hint: 11) Commit:11
-  DEBUG 1 received MsgAppResp(rejected, hint: (index 11, term 1)) from 3 for index 14
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/17 Commit:17
 
 # Eventually all nodes catch up on the committed state.
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/slow_follower_after_compaction.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/slow_follower_after_compaction.txt
index a74c15db5ebe..84a6f35d7ed5 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/slow_follower_after_compaction.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/slow_follower_after_compaction.txt
@@ -109,34 +109,22 @@ stabilize
 > 1 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=false:
   Messages:
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
     Snapshot: Index:18 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
   1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
     Snapshot: Index:18 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
   INFO log [committed=14, applied=14, applying=14, unstable.offset=15, unstable.offsetInProgress=15, len(unstable.Entries)=0] starts to restore snapshot [index: 18, term: 1]
   INFO 3 switched to configuration voters=(1 2 3)
   INFO 3 [commit: 18, lastindex: 18, lastterm: 1] restored snapshot [index: 18, term: 1]
   INFO 3 [commit: 18] restored snapshot [index: 18, term: 1]
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Vote:1 Commit:18 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
   Snapshot Index:18 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/18 Commit:18
 > 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgAppResp Term:1 Log:0/18 Commit:18
   DEBUG 1 recovered from needing snapshot, resumed sending replication messages to 3 [StateSnapshot match=18 next=19 sentCommit=18 matchCommit=18 paused pendingSnap=18]
 
diff --git a/pkg/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt b/pkg/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
index 2fafbdc5f4c6..db0abcd69d88 100644
--- a/pkg/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
+++ b/pkg/raft/testdata/snapshot_succeed_via_app_resp.txt
@@ -65,40 +65,40 @@ process-ready 1
 ----
 Ready MustSync=false:
 Messages:
-1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
 1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
 
-# Iterate until no more work is done by the new peer. It receives the heartbeat
-# and responds.
+# Iterate until no more work is done by the new peer.
 stabilize 3
 ----
 > 3 receiving messages
-  1->3 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-  INFO 3 [term: 0] received a MsgHeartbeat message with higher term from 1 [term: 1]
-  INFO 3 became follower at term 1
   1->3 MsgFortifyLeader Term:1 Log:0/0
+  INFO 3 [term: 0] received a MsgFortifyLeader message with higher term from 1 [term: 1]
+  INFO 3 became follower at term 1
 > 3 handling Ready
   Ready MustSync=true:
   HardState Term:1 Commit:0 Lead:1 LeadEpoch:1
   Messages:
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
   3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:1
 
-# The leader in turn will realize that n3 needs a snapshot, which it initiates.
-stabilize 1
+deliver-msgs 1
 ----
-> 1 receiving messages
-  3->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-  DEBUG 1 [firstindex: 12, commit: 11] sent snapshot[index: 11, term: 1] to 3 [StateProbe match=0 next=11 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=0]
-  DEBUG 1 paused sending replication messages to 3 [StateSnapshot match=0 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=0 paused pendingSnap=11]
-  3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:1
-> 1 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
-    Snapshot: Index:11 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
+3->1 MsgFortifyLeaderResp Term:1 Log:0/0 LeadEpoch:1
+
+# The leader sends a snapshot to the follower on the next heartbeat timeout
+# because the follower is now marked as active.
+# TODO(ibrahim): Call MaybeSendAppend after receiving MsgFortifyLeaderResp.
+tick-heartbeat 1
+----
+DEBUG 1 [firstindex: 12, commit: 11] sent snapshot[index: 11, term: 1] to 3 [StateProbe match=0 next=11 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=0]
+DEBUG 1 paused sending replication messages to 3 [StateSnapshot match=0 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=0 paused pendingSnap=11]
 
+process-ready 1
+----
+Ready MustSync=false:
+Messages:
+1->3 MsgSnap Term:1 Log:0/0
+  Snapshot: Index:11 Term:1 ConfState:Voters:[1 2 3] VotersOutgoing:[] Learners:[] LearnersNext:[] AutoLeave:false
+  
 status 1
 ----
 1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
@@ -138,15 +138,3 @@ status 1
 1: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=10 matchCommit=10
 2: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
 3: StateReplicate match=11 next=12 sentCommit=11 matchCommit=11
-
-# Let things settle.
-stabilize
-----
-> 2 receiving messages
-  1->2 MsgHeartbeat Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 2 handling Ready
-  Ready MustSync=false:
-  Messages:
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0
-> 1 receiving messages
-  2->1 MsgHeartbeatResp Term:1 Log:0/0