10_Professional-Notes

 

 

 

  p. 1967 (#911)                      #

PROFESSIONAL NOTES
PREPARED BY
LIEUTENANT COMMANDER H. W. UNDERWOOD, U. S. Navy
GENERAL ARRANGEMENT
DRIDI
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1968
1970
1972
1974
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1975
1977
1980
1980
1981
1983
1985
1988
GREAT BRITAIN
The Naval Program ..
British Naval Plans Criticized at Home .
The Royal Dockyards ..
Maintaining the Fleet ......
FRANCE
New French Command in Mediterranean
Progress of Aviation in France .....
Trade Expansion .
New Mine-Laying Submarine ......
ITALY
The Economic Situation in Italy..
JAPAN
The Commercial and Industrial Position in Japan ......
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UNITED STATES
Another Side of the 5-5-3 Argument........
The Great Pacific War .....
AERONAUTICS
Commercial Airports and Airways .............
Superchargers ......
Inaugural Flight of Goodyear Pilgrim ........
ENGINEERING
The World's Marine Engineering Situation ...
The Propelling Machinery Controversy.
Selecting Lubricating Oils for Navy Use
Navy to Make Tests with Pulverized Coal
MERCHANT MARINE
Fleet Corporation and Shipping Board Affairs
Motor Passenger Liners .
Motor Liner Asturias .....
Flettner Rudder ....
MISCELLANEOUS
Combat Methods of the Japanese ........
Australia's Apprehensions
Seven "Danger Spots" Still Disturb World
Peace by Cooperation is Institute's Message..
ige....................
CURRENT PROFESSIONAL NOTES AND PAPERS ........ .........
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  p. 1968 (#912)                      #

1968
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
GREAT BRITAIN
The Naval Program
The Engineer, 31 July, 1925.— Particulars of the new shipbuilding program
for the navy, which the Prime Minister announced in the House of Commons
last week, are given in a White Paper issued on Monday night. Under
this scheme it is proposed to lay down each year for the next five years
certain craft which are needed to replace older vessels that are rapidly
becoming obsolete. To those who make a study of current naval affairs
it has long been evident that' the system we have pursued since the war of,
as it were, living on our capital in respect of warship material could not
go on indefinitely unless we were prepared to accept a subordinate position
in the ranks of the great sea powers. Such a position would, of course, be
intolerable for many reasons. No party in the state and no responsible
member of any party would recommend as a deliberate policy the surrender
of that measure of naval strength which has justly been regarded as vital
by successive generations of British statesmen, with the whole-hearted
support of the people. It is true that the role of the navy as our first line
of defense has been somewhat modified by the conquest of the air. Our
insular situation, no longer confers the complete immunity from oversea
attack which we formerly enjoyed by virtue of a powerful fleet. Under
present circumstances the navy of itself cannot guarantee our coasts against
insult. Science has evolved a weapon by which the afortime invincible
cordon of sea defense may be evaded, and telling blows be delivered at the
very heart of the empire. But, to argue that because the navy has ceased
to be a sure shield in every sense of the term it is not worth preserving
at a given standard of strength, seems to us to betray a singularly imperfect
appreciation of realities. While it may be true that the Navy exists
primarily to defend our shores from attack, and only secondarily—though
this point has been warmly disputed—to protect the seaborne trade upon
which we as a nation are absolutely dependent for our living, it is obvious
that a naval force too weak to perform the first function would be equally
incapable of fulfilling the second. It is no less clear that security from
air attack, if purchased by developing the air fleet at the expense of the
navy, would avail us little in the event of war with an opponent who could
deploy a superior force at sea. Air raids, on however large a scale, could
affect but a minor section of the populace, but any prolonged interruption
of our food supplies would cause universal distress and must eventually
compel our unconditional submission. We would apologize for dwelling
on these elementary truths were it not that they are so often ignored by
present-day critics of the navy, who seem to think that the whole problem
of national defense is open to solution by the simple expedient of abolishing
sea power and building up a great air force.
Granting the premise that existing circumstances still demand the main-
tenance of a respect-compelling navy, the case for a new naval program is
easy to defend. We have lately been treated to a bewildering mass of
statistics by two schools of thought-the first concerned to show that our
cruiser resources are quite adequate, and would remain so for years to
come, even if no new keel were laid down; the second endeavoring to prove
that the deficiency of cruising ships is already so grave as to demand heroic
measures. The truth, we think, lies somewhere between these two extremes.
Upwards of fifty cruisers are now on the navy list. Of these vessels, a
round dozen are too old and to slow to be of any serious fighting value.
A further twenty, although of later design, were completed during 1915-17
and thus subjected to the excessive stress and strain of war service, which
must have curtailed very considerably their normal span of useful "life.”
The balance consists mainly of small ships of the C and D class, rather
deficient in speed and nautical qualities, but not without a distinct value for


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1925]
1969
Professional Notes
fleet duty; four larger and more powerful vessels of the improved Birming-
ham class, and the two E class units, which were specially designed for
great speed. Besides these, we have five County cruisers on the stocks, and
two more of the same type will shortly be laid down for the Australian
Navy. Finally, there is the cruiser-mine layer Adventure. Applying the
new standards of cruiser efficiency set up by the Washington compact-which
has virtually stereotyped the future cruising ship as a vessel of 10,000 tons,
mounting 8-inch guns—it will be found that the empire has, built and build-
ing, eleven ships which belong, more or less, to this major type; three of
the second class, and eleven or twelve suitable for work with the fleet, but
not for independent ocean cruising. This establishment may seem meager
enough in view of the multifarious duties that would fall to it in war time,
including the patrol of trade routes which aggregate a distance of 80,000
miles; and so, indeed, it is. On the other hand, there has not, so far, been
any marked development of the oceanic cruiser type in other navies, and
in ships of this class under construction or completed we have still a decided
margin over all the other powers together. This lead will, however, be
appreciably reduced if the foreign programs now in hand are in each case
carried out in full. The United States alone has eight 10,000-ton ships
projected, Japan has four, France six, and Italy five. With all these powers
our relations are quite friendly, and nowhere is there any sign of a deliberate
challenge to our naval position. This fact notwithstanding, it is of the
first importance that the navy shall be kept strong and efficient, and not
least that branch of it which would be responsible in war for the safety
of our floating commerce. Experience should have taught us that cruisers
are cheaper than commerce raids. So long as we can give a reasonable
degree of protection to our shipping there will be little or no scope for the
exploits of a future Emden or an Alabama. It is unfortunate that the
modern ocean cruiser should be as expensive as a pre-war battleship, but
heavy as the cost of building up a large fleet of these vessels may be, we
are convinced that it will be more than recompensed by the security afforded
to our seaborne trade.
Turning now to the details of the new program, we find that it is
proposed to lay down in the current financial year four A class cruisers-
that is, ships of 10,000 tons. Next year two of the A class and one ship
of the B class are to be started. In subsequent years, from 1927 to 1929
inclusive, the annual quota will be three ships, one being of the A and two
of the B class. The latter, a new design prepared on the basis of 8,000 tons
displacement, is an intermediate type, bridging the rather wide gap between
small fleet cruisers and the big "treaty” ships. It is represented abroad
by the American Omaha, the Japanese Furutaka, and the French Dugilagi-
Trouin, and in our own service by the Emerald. Whether a ship of this
character could engage a "treaty" cruiser without being summarily defeated
is a question for naval men to determine. If it could not, then the design is
open to serious criticism, for it should be an unvarying principle of British
naval policy to build only such vessels as are equal in fighting power to
the strongest of their class being built elsewhere. But, until some details
of the B type cruiser are available, it would be profitless to carry the dis-
cussion further. If the program is completed according to plan, the empire
will possess in 1932 a fleet of sixteen A class cruisers-or twenty if the
Hawkins and her consorts are rated as such—and ten ships of the B class.
Provided that no large additions are made to foreign navies in the mean-
while, this force of thirty ocean cruisers should be adequate. The cir-
cumstances in which the plan was adopted by the Cabinet leave no doubt
that the Admiralty regards it as the minimum commensurate with Imperial
needs. It is a relief to find some provision being made for the methodical
replacement of destroyers and submarines, the building of which has been
practically in abeyance for years past. We have fewer patrol submarines
today than the United States or Japan, and will soon be outdistanced by


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1970
Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
France. Our destroyers are mostly of old design, very few of them compar-
ing favorably with the latest foreign productions. Twenty-seven destroyers
are to be laid down in the three years beginning 1927-28. The replacement
of submarines is to start next year with a batch of six O type boats, pre-
sumably similar to the 0-1, of 1,480 tons, which is now under construction
at Chatham. Each year thereafter for the next three years six additional
submarines will be laid down, but one of the group projected for 1929-30
is to be of the fleet type. In that year, also, a new aircraft carrier is to be
begun. Other material provided for in the five-year building plan com-
prises five gunboats, four motor launches, two submarine depot ships, one
net layer, a repair ship, and a floating dock. The total cost, estimated at
£58,000,000, is likely to extend over a period of eight years.
The program as it stands is clearly a compromise between the rival
claims of naval defense and national economy. Its acceptance by the Board
of Admiralty can only mean that the supreme naval authorities consider
it adequate. Otherwise they could scarcely have remained in office. The
community will benefit directly by the increased activity in numberless
trades affected by naval shipbuilding and the consequent mitigation of un-
employment. At least 70 per cent of the total sum involved will be ex-
pended in wages; nor must the political effect of the program be ignored.
It signifies to the world at large that Great Britain lacks neither the means
nor the resolution to uphold that sea power which is not only essential
to her national being, but is a proved bulwark of peace.
British Naval Plans Criticized at Home
By Hector C. Bywater, Baltimore Sun, 13 August, 1925.— Newspaper com-
ment on the government's cruiser program is, on the whole, unfriendly.
Excepting the Morning Post, which quaintly hails it as a naval triumph
comparable to the Battle of Jutland, the tone of ministerial organs is one
of tepid approval, qualified by outspoken misgivings as to how the taxpayer
will take this latest addition to his already tremendous burden.
By opposition papers the program is denounced with a vehemence which
obviously does not spring from party motives alone. Many stanch Unionists,
holding this to be a singularly unfortunate moment at which to resume war-
ship construction on a large scale, confess their disappointment with the
Prime Minister for yielding to Admiralty pressure.
It is the almost universal opinion that the government has committed a
blunder of the first magnitude, for which it will pay dearly. The adoption
of a naval scheme which involves a capital outlay of $290,000,000 at a
period of acute economic crisis could only be justified, it is argued, by some
grave and pressing menace to the national safety, yet even members of the
government are compelled to own that no such menace is in sight.
From the purely naval viewpoint there is much to be said for the program.
Though the British cruiser fleet looks formidable on paper, it consists in the
main of material which the progress of design has rendered obsolete. As
the First Lord of the Admiralty told Parliament yesterday, if no new ships
were begun this year the British Empire would have seven cruisers of post-
war design, the United States eighteen, Japan twenty-one and France nine.
Four years hence the position with regard to cruisers armed with 8-in. guns
would be: British Empire seven, United States eight, Japan eight, and
France six. At to speed of ships exceeding 30 knots, the empire would
have seven, the United States eighteen, Japan twenty-five, and France nine.
These figures are to some extent arbitrary, ignoring as they do four
British ships (Raleigh class) which mount a battery of seven 77/2-in. guns,
and because they accept the trial speeds of American and Japanese ships as
the actual sea speeds. The fact that several new American cruisers are to
have their machinery modified and that more than one Japanese cruiser has


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1971
Professional Notes
broken down when driven at maximum speed suggests that performance on
trial is not always a sure guide to performance in service.
But, on the part of the general public there is a growing and healthy
tendency to examine naval problems in a broader light than that of mere
technique. The old ton-and-gun system of measurement is discredited.
Scarcely anyone looks twice at comparisons of British and American cruiser
strength because scarcely anyone believes in the possibility of war with
America, and, unless war is envisaged as a possible contingency, compari-
sons of armed strength lack reality.
There remain only Japan and France as potential foes, but, to the man in
the street Japan is little more than a geographical expression. You cannot
make his flesh creep by dilating on the military power of a country half a
world away. This generation was bred in the tradition that only from the
continent of Europe is any serious challenge to British sea power to be
apprehended.
In my own youth the navy was organized for the specific purpose of
dealing with a coalition of the French and Russian fleets-the original touch-
stone of the two-power standard-but, only in the present century the naval
outlook had changed completely. Russian sea power was destroyed in the
war with Japan, while the conclusion of the entente cordiale removed
France from the list of prospective enemies. From that time forward the
one naval pre-occupation of this country was to keep an ample margin of
supremacy over the German fleet.
Now that the German fleet has been swept from the board, the British
Navy has no serious rival in European waters.
Rightly or wrongly, the public here does not regard French naval activity
with any alarm, despite the somewhat formidable number of submarines
which are constructing across the channel. It is infinitely more concerned
about the growth of French air power. A shipbuilding program aimed
against France would find no popular support. It follows, therefore, that
British naval policy today lacks a definite objective, at least so far as the
warding off of any tangible menace is in question.
Hence, the widespread opposition to the Admiralty's cruiser program.
Fears are expressed that, by inaugurating a new era of competitive ship-
building, it may undo the good work of the Washington Conference. There
is reason to fear that other powers may consider it expedient to build
more ships in order to preserve the status quo.
Already the French press is clamoring for an expansion of the 1922 navy
law, and rumors of a new Japanese program persist in the face of denials
from Tokio. Nor can the probability of a renewed naval agitation in
America be overlooked.
In these circumstances it is natural that the idea of a conference for the
further restriction of sea armaments should be gaining ground. Members
of Parliament are advocating this course, and journals of every political
complexion are taking it up. A resolution passed by the League of Nations
Union implores the government to take the initiative in summoning a con-
ference, "preferably through the League of Nations," with a view of avert-
ing an "inevitable competition in armaments among the naval powers,
which unless checked, will be a serious menace to peace.” Some news-
papers hold that Japan would be more likely to cooperate if the invitation
came from London instead of Washington.
Paris dispatches indicate that France no longer cherishes the ambitious
plans of submarine development which wrecked every attempt to ration
auxiliary craft at the first conference. It is further pointed out that since
the limitation of battleships probably would have failed but that America
had something substantial to bargain with the obvious policy for Great
Britain now is to announce her readiness to scrap this new building scheme,


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1972
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
provided the other powers will agree to a fixed ratio of strength in cruisers
and other auxiliaries.
One thing is certain: If President Coolidge feels disposed to revive his
plan for a new naval conference, he may count on the whole-hearted support
of British public opinion. The government itself would welcome it as a
means of escape from an embarrassing situation while the nation at large
would acclaim any action that promised to avert a new race in naval arma-
ments, with all the evil consequences, fiscal and political, to which it must
give rise.
The Royal Dockyards
The Engineer, 14 August, 1925.--In return for the government's approval
of the shipbuilding program, the Admiralty has pledged itself to effect such
economies in other branches of the naval administration as will obviate the
necessity of a supplementary vote for new construction during the current
financial year. How these economies are to be effected has not yet been
made public. There is, no doubt, some scope for retrenchment within the
Admiralty office itself, the cost of which far exceeds the pre-war figure,
in spite of the much smaller navy we are now maintaining, but, while a
cut in administration expenses would be welcomed for the principle of the
thing, the largest sum likely to be saved in this way would bear an insig-
nificant relation to the impending bill for new construction. A more promis-
ing expedient, which the Admiralty is understood to favor, is the closing
down of certain of the Royal Dockyards at home which have become
superfluous: namely, Chatham, Sheerness, and Pembroke. Owing to its
position in an area which has ceased to be strategically important, the
dockyard at Rosyth is also of limited utility, but since it is at present
the only government yard in the country where H.M.S. Hood and other
large bulged ships can be docked, that establishment is in no immediate
danger of being discarded. The other yards referred to have no important
docking facilities. Sheerness, which is only a repairing base for small
craft, might well be dispensed with. Chatham is of more importance; it
has specialized for years past in submarine construction and has a fairly
up-to-date plant for the building of larger vessels, the cruiser Kent being
now on the stocks there; but Chatham, like Sheerness, has become super-
fluous. A cogent objection to the retention of these two establishments is
their vulnerability to aerial attack, though that objection might be said
to apply to Portsmouth as well, and even to Devonport. Pembroke has a
reputation for excellence of workmanship, some of the finest cruisers of the
pre-war navy having been built at that yard. Its plant was partly modern-
ized during the war, and is now, we believe, fully competent to undertake
the building of cruisers of the latest type; but Pembroke is not con-
veniently placed for the needs of the present-day feet, and in recent years it
has had a very limited amount of work in hand.
The estimated expenditure this year on the yards at Chatham, Sheerness,
and Pembroke is £1,063,968. It does not by any means follow, however,
that this sum would be saved to the country if the three yards were closed.
Such action would involve the dismissal of many thousands of workers,
skilled and unskilled, the greater number of whom would at once proceed,
and of necessity, to draw unemployment pay. Nor would that be all. The
closing of any dockyard must be disastrous to the locality in which it is
situated, inflicting hardship on numberless people who are not directly con-
nected with the establishment, but whose livelihood depends, nevertheless,
upon its existence and prosperity. Residents of the dockyard towns know
only too well the widespread distress that resulted after the war, when the
discharge of surplus personnel began on a large scale. Though the naval
budget might show a considerable saving if the redundant dockyards were


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1973
Professional Notes
closed, we fear that the nation as a whole would lose more than it gained,
In this period of economic stress it is vital that broader issues than mere
departmental convenience should be duly weighed before decision is reached.
So far as the navy is concerned, its requirements could probably be met by
Portsmouth and Devonport alone. That much is admitted by a service
journal which has always upheld the interests of the dockyards, but which,
in its latest issue, frankly owns that Chatham, Sheerness, and Pembroke
are “not really necessary;" and yet, for the reasons outlined above, we
doubt whether the government will take the drastic step of closing them.
The problem of the smaller dockyards is, in truth, a thorny one, not to be
solved by the rough-and-ready measures that appear to the zealot for econ-
omy. The question of whether they are essential for the navy, though
certainly an important issue, is not the only one to be considered. Judged
by that test, none of the small yards could hope to survive. The work
they are now doing could be performed with equal efficiency and probably
at a reduced cost by the private shipyards. To the best of our knowledge
it has never been claimed that the royal yards can build or repair ships
more cheaply than independent establishments. The brief post-war experi-
ment of constructing merchant vessels in the dockyards was a signal failure
from the financial point of view. It may be urged, however, and with
justice that the prime function of a state yard is the repair and maintenance
of the King's ships, their construction being quite a secondary matter.
But, even on this basis, it would be difficult to present a convincing case
for retaining such yards as those at Pembroke, Chatham, and Sheerness.
The fleet of today is very much smaller than the fleet of 1914, nor is there
any prospect of a substantial increase in its dimensions within the dis-
cernible future. Over a long period of time our battle fleet is restricted by
treaty to a certain number of ships. Ten years hence we shall have only
sixteen capital ships all told, and from 1936 to 1942, presuming the Wash-
ington compact to remain in force so long, only fifteen ships. Considera-
tions of expense will effectively prevent any corresponding expansion
of the non-capital fleet. With every new cruiser costing £2,000,000, every
destroyer £250,000, and every submarine £400,000—vide an answer returned
in the House of Commons last week—there will be no incentive to build
above the irreducible minimum in any one of these types. It is therefore
extremely probable that the present numerical strength of the navy, small
though it be, will tend rather to diminish than increase. Now, the dock-
yards we possess today were created and organized to meet the needs of
a Aleet very much larger than that which remains to us, and of a fleet,
moreover, which was designed in the first place to operate in the Narrow
Seas. Barring some wholly unforeseen development in international
politics, the contingency of a future war in Europe, in which Great Britain
would be a belligerent, is happily remote. The importance attached to the
new Singapore base, together with the systematic building up of oil fuel
stations along the main oceanic routes, points unmistakably to an Ad-
miralty conviction that the next war, if it does materialize, will be fought
in some zone thousands of miles from home waters. In the event of such
a conflict, the first business of the home dockyards would be to repair
and fit out ships destined for the front. That much accomplished, there
would be little left for them to do, since the task of maintaining and re-
plenishing ships in the war zone would devolve on such dockyards as were
suitably placed for the purpose. The ability of our feet to keep the seas
would depend chiefly on the base facilities available at Singapore, Trin-
comali, Sydney, and Malta. Pursuing this line of argument to its logical
extreme, we reach the conclusion that the money now spent on all save the
most necessary establishments at home should forwith be diverted to the
improvement of our naval bases oversea. That, we believe, is the Ad-


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1974
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
miralty's view, albeit for the reasons explained it may not be practicable to
give it effect in the immediate future.
For the present, so it seems to us, the problem of our superfluous dock-
yards does not lend itself to any satisfactory solution. To close them
down would be to aggravate unemployment in a branch of industry which
suffers more than most from the prevailing depression. To keep them open
is to impose a charge on the state for which there is no adequate return,
yet the second alternative is probably the lesser evil. Sooner or later there
must be a reversion to healthier economic conditions, with a consequent
reduction in the number of unemployed. When that occurs a demand will
arise for workers in every trade, including shipbuilding and ship repairing,
and an opportunity may thus be given of absorbing into private industry
part of the thousands of men for whom work is now literally being “made"
in the smaller dockyards. This will be the proper moment at which to close
the redundant establishments. We can only trust that the government then
in office will have sufficient resolution to take such a course, regardless
of the political pressure brought to bear by the small but influential group
of "dockyard members," to whose joint effort is due, in no small part, the
continued maintenance at heavy expense of naval establishments which con-
tribute nothing to our naval strength.
Maintaining the Fleet
The Army, Navy and Air Force Gazette, 8 August, 1925.—Shorn of its
political significance and of the interchanges of party warfare, last week's
naval debate brought out clearly one vital fact, that this country is de-
termined to maintain the navy up to a one-power standard, that its strength,
in other words, shall not be allowed to deteriorate below that of any other
nation. It would have been well had someone challenged the opposition
parties on this issue. If they accept this principle, much of their criticism
is automatically silenced. The rebuilding of the feet, as Mr. Churchill
truly said, is a charge that must fall upon any government or any board
of admiralty in one form or another. Refusing to be led away by high-
sounding phrases such as that about our standard of naval strength being in
strict adherence to some promise expressed in the covenant of the League
of Nations—that our defense forces should be reduced to the minimum con-
sistent with national safety—the governments have faced the position fairly
and squarely, and their decision does them credit. That they have earnestly
striven to keep expenditure down to the lowest possible limit is shown by
the fact that their five-year program will give us, with the ships already
in hand, twenty-three cruisers. The Amery program of two years ago
would have provided thirty-three at a cost of from 15,000,000 to 20,000,000
more. The changed situation abroad justifies this retrenchment, and in-
ternational agreement between the powers may render still further economies
possible later on.
In the meantime, what the Admiralty critics entirely fail to see is that
it is the cabinet which determines policy. It is the government which says
what our fleet shall be maintained for. Having thus a certain responsibility
placed upon them, it is the board which says what forces are necessary
to discharge that responsibility. The lucid statement of Mr. Churchill as
to the negotiations which led up to the new program renders extremely
foolish the talk about insubordinate Admirals, to which even Lloyd George
found it desirable to lend himself. On one point at least he is quite mis-
taken--that for admirals to stand by their program is quite a modern
innovation, and that the old admirals never put forward such a claim. The
reverse is the case, as many examples could prove, one of the best known
being when the board under Lord Spencer, which included Admirals
Richards, Kerr, and Fisher, stood to their program and wrecked Mr.
Gladstone's last ministry. The events of the last few weeks have merely
followed well-established precedent.


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1975
Professional Notes
Another point in which the critics were ill-in formed was as to the need
for cruisers in peace-time. It was suggested that as no great war is likely
for ten years-a pure speculation which it suits many people to accept as
an accomplished fact-therefore no ships need be built until it is upon us.
A closer examination of events since the Armistice would show the manifold
uses of cruisers in normal times. China, Mexico, Honduras, Tangier,
Chanak, and a host of other places have all been glad of the presence of a
British cruiser, and the value to the empire of the policing of the seas which
the navy performs year in and year out is incalculable. It promotes trade,
empire fellowship, and international good will. More than the battleship,
the cruiser is one of the principal agents of this work, and all friends of
the navy will rejoice that twenty-three of the war-built vessels, many of
them but fragile supertorpedo craft, are now to be replaced by up-to-date
ships, better designed and equipped for service in the outer oceans.
FRANCE
New French Command in Mediterranean
The Naval and Military Record, 5 August, 1925.-Admiral Dumesnil, on
being replaced by Admiral Violette, in the command of the Toulon squadron,
will assume the responsible duties of Inspecteur Genéral des forces maritimes
de la Mediterranee, a new post giving him rights of supervision over the
shore defenses and seagoing formations of Toulon, Corsica, Bizerta, Algiers,
and Oran, without mentioning the aerial stations of St. Raphael, Cuers,
and the Syrian naval stations. This command is by far the most important
in the French naval service, and for such comprehensive functions it is
agreed Admiral Dumesnil is the right man in the right place. Words are
unnecessary to praise a chief who showed in action under extremely critical
circumstances what he was worth. The 4,700-ton croisseur-cuirassé
Latouche-Tréville, earmarked for condemnation in July, 1914; and so worn
out that she was crawling home at seven knots, Commandant Dumesnil
turned into the most efficient and daring fighter in the Dardanelles contest,
and her exploits he related in his well-known book, Souvenirs de Guerre
d'un Vieux Croiseur. M. Dumesnil's exceptionally brilliant career is due
solely to his tried merit, and the thing is unusual enough in the Marine
Républicaine. He has brought Pescadre de combat to a high degree of
efficiency, employing in tactics and strategy and in training his commanders
that directness of purpose and quick decision that are the marks of great
chiefs. Eloquence, verbiage, literary attainments, witty but negative criticism,
and anything that is not action and impedes action he despised and promptly
brushed aside in the ordinary discharge of fleet duties and in dealing with his
commanders. In this respect his influence has been great on the formation
of many promising commanders.
This placing of France's Mediterranean sea power under the supervision
of so experienced and active an admiral, who for the past two years has
lived mostly at sea, all the problems of the command of the Mediterranean,
will have the effect of benefitting France's position in waters which she must
be assured of commanding in wartime under penalty of losing her African
empire and her rank as a great nation. The massing of the supreme British
Armada in the Middle Sea, the steady increase of the Italian fleet, that
excels the French in the matter of torpedo and aerial flotillas, the general
unrest in the Moslem world, and signs of brewing strife in Balkan and
Turkish quarters are so many faits nouveaus that call for an immediate
and substantial strengthening of the inadequately-equipped naval and aerial
bases in Tunisia and Corsica.
Admiral Docteux (fifty-seven years of age), on relinquishing the com-
mand of the Channel Division and flotillas, which he trained remarkably,


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1976
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
will assume the functions of Director du Personnel Militaire at the Paris
Admiralty. Rear Admiral Brigson (fifty-seven years of age) becomes
chief of the Defense Department of the important Toulon port militaire,
he previously commanded a battle division. There are at the present
moment only thirty-four Aag officers on the active list (instead of seventy-
five, and of these orly seven are employed at sea, which is truly a small
proportion and not favorable to efficiency. Too many fine men of action
with gold stars on their sleeves are pining, fretting, and rusting in bureau-
cratic berths on the plancher des vaches, anxious for any chance of getting
out to sea, the home of true marines. The commissioning within the next
few months of three 8,000-ton cruisers, six 2,400-ton destroyers, and twelve
1,500-ton torpilleurs d'escadre, without mentioning submarines, will supply
the means of satisfying the longings for sea of the three or four more flag
officers. Rear Admiral Herr (fifty-two years of age), a distinguished
officer and fervent believer in speed and torpedoes, is expected to take the
command of the six Chacals (2,400 tons, five 5.1-in. guns, six torpedo
tubes, and 36 knots), that would form one ultra-fast patrolling and scouting
flotilla to be placed at the disposal of, the commander-in-chief at Toulon,
but with Bizerta as ordinary headquarters. Destroyers of 1,500 tons
(Simoun type) would be used as florilla leaders to the fifty-odd torpilleurs
d'escadre in commission, duties they could well perform, since they, too,
carry the new 5.1-inch caliber and the 550 mil. type of torpedoes, and will
do 34 knots on trials. They are a match for most Italian destroyers or
Aotilla leaders.
The six 36-knot Chacals, if true to expectations, would have nothing to
fear from any Mediterranean cruiser, and, besides, they could form an
escadre rapide with the three 35-knot Duguay-Trouins although expert
opinion is hostile to the closing up of these fine cruisers, well suited to
colonial defense, in the narrow Mediterranean waters. The Tigre (Chantiers
de Bretagne) has carried out promising preliminary trials in the Atlantic;
her turbine de croisière, despite the very small place it occupies on board.
gave easily 20 knots (with over 6,000 h.p.), instead of 18, and the Rateau
turbines worked satisfactorily, as usual, and leave no doubt as to the contract
figures being excecded by a good margin in the official trials to take place
shortly. The five boilers produced more steam than bargained for, and
justified the Admiralty decision to fit only four boilers in the three 2,650-
ton contretorpilleurs just ordered. The behavior of the Tigre in the choppy
waters of the Bay of Biscay was good, and life on board was comfortable,
although ito men and petty officers are somewhat crowded in two spacious
living quarters in the fore part of the ship, just as in English destroyers
officers are lodged at the extreme after part of the ship in comfortable and
relatively roomy quarters, very light and pleasant.
In several respects, habitability on board the Chacals and Tigre marks a
progress on anything yet achieved in that line in the French Navy. Sanitary
arrangements are practical, and thoroughly hygienic; lavatories and bathing
quarters are roomy and supplied with hot and cold water, and ventilation
in living rooms and motor quarters has been the object of special attention.
A thirty-six cubic-meter refrigerating room under the bows contains meat
and other articles of diet for three months, and the supply of drinking
water is ample. In the matter of food and other stores these 2,400-ton
so-called destroyers have been endowed with the endurance of cruisers, and
would be available for maintaining safe communications with colonies.
There are on decks five different kitchens of up-to-date practical design,
besides a bakery, producing 330 lb. of bread per day. On the initiative
of Commandant Brohan, the able commander of the Chacal, who believes
(with the first American admiral, Paul Jones) that contentment is the soul
of efficiency, cooperative canteens have been added to the list of board


  p. 1977 (#921)                      #

1925)
1977
Professional Notes
comforts that will provide "matelots” with all "extras" they may wish for,
which is a proof that Frenchmen, just like Englishmen, prefer fighting on a
full stomach.
Progress of Aeronautics in France
Bulletin of "French Bureau of Information," New York City, 12 August,
1925.-Commercial aviation has made considerable progress in France since
the war. At the beginning of the present year there were no less than
thirty-seven aerial lines running on regular schedules.
The activity of the Transports Aériens Company, at first connected with
the War Office, made possible the creation of a state secretaryship for
aeronautics. The different branches of aeronautics, however, have not been
united yet, and the four sections of aviation, military, naval, colonial, and
commercial, are still connected with four different ministries, war, navy,
colonies, and aeronautics. A connection between them is established, but
rather imperfectly, through three central services under the control of the
State Under-Secretary for Aeronautics: Technical Service of Aeronautics,
Manufacturing Service, National Office of Meteorology. Nevertheless, air-
plane manufacturers being thus encouraged and advised, and production
being to a certain extent supervised, the output is more regular and the
aeronautical industry is now working on a safer basis.
Aerodromes and emergency stations with telephones and repair shops
have been built.. Landing places are of three kinds, emergency landing
grounds, stations, and aerial ports.
An emergency landing ground usually covers about twenty-five hectares
(about 62/2 acres) and has a watchman with his residence on the spot.
Airmen find there a telephone, the necessary equipment for summary repair
work, and also a supply of gasoline and oil.
A station has a better equipped repair shop, a more important supply of
gas and oil, shelters, and a wireless station. Stations close to the borders
have a custom office besides.
An aerial port is nothing else than a station, but its equipment is more
complete and the landing ground is much larger.
At the present time, there are in France and in North Africa, one main
port, two secondary ports, nineteen stations, twenty-three emergency land-
ing grounds, seven bases and one seaplane port.
A scientific coordination of all aviation services and also improvements
in industrial methods have given very good results. Aerial transportation
is now no less secure, and just as regular, as any other. The percentage
of punctuality for the whole year is as high as 98 per cent. Accidents are
less frequent. In 1922, twenty accidents causing loss of human life occurred,
while the distance covered was 3,500,000 kilometers. In 1923, there were
twelve accidents for a distance of 3,900,000 kilometers, which represents
one person killed for a Aight eight times around the world.
The coefficient of security for 1924 is three times higher than in the
preceding year. Such splendid records are a sure proof that French air
machines are more and more reliable, that the aerial service is methodically
organized, while the professional ability of pilots is an additional guarantee
of security.
During the year 1924, French aviation made new records and audacious
fights, among which the following are particularly remarkable. Captain
Pelletier-Doisy made the memorable flight Paris-Hanoi-Peking-Tokyo;
Paris-Shanghai (16,450 kilometers--or about 10,220 miles, in ninety hours
of actual Aight, with fourteen stops; Paris-Tokyo (21,000 kilometers--or
about 13,000 miles) in 122 hours of actual flight, with twenty stops. From
Paris to Shanghai the flight was made with the same planes, the same


  p. 1978 (#922)                      #

1978
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
motor (not one part being replaced) the same pilot and one mechanic. It
is one of the most remarkable achievements in aeronautics.
In 1925, Captains Lemaitre and Arrachard made a non-stop flight of
3.400 kilometers or about 2,100 miles from Etampes (France) to Villa
Cisnéros (750 kilometers or about 465 miles from Dakar, Africa). This
non-stop flight is the official world record.
Such records speak well for France's airplane industry, which turns out
machines remarkable for their fine workmanship and their sturdiness. Im-
provements in the motors and a considerable increase in power also are
factors of 110 small importance. A few figures given here below sum up
the technical progress made since the war.
1919
1924
Power of motors ................ 300 H.P. 480 to 500 H.P.
Duration of flight .............. 50 hours 200 hours (commercial)
Average speed
.......kilometers per 600 hours (maximum)
hour 180 to 220 kilometers per
110 to 130
hour
1923
Non-stop flight (commercial) .... 310 miles
1924
373
A model aerial line is now being created and it may be taken for granted
that the work will be performed with the most painstaking care. France
already possesses at Le Bourget, which is the aerial port of Paris, one of
the best equipped aerial ports in the world. Its equipment includes a large
building in which are located offices for the management, a waiting roon
for passengers, a reading room, post office, an exchange office, and so forth.
Lately, a restaurant and custom offices have been established. Besides, and
in order to make sure of the physical fitness of pilots, an office for physio-
logical tests and studies has been created at Le Bourget.
It is obvious that landing stations on aerial lines cannot have as im-
portant an equipment as aerial ports. However, some landing grounds and
aerial depots are being created close to some big cities on convenient spots :
for instance, after having established the aerial port of Marignano, the city
of Marseilles, at the suggestion and under the supervision of its chamber of
commerce, is studying plans for the organization of commercial aviation on
a larger scale.
At the present time, the five state subsidized companies for aerial trans-
portation are trying to establish connections between Paris and the main
capitals of the world, and to organize a Mediterranean aerial system so
as to connect France with the Near-East and South America.
The Société Air Union takes care of the traffic on the line Paris-London.
The Société Générale de Transports Aériens operates the line Paris-Brussels-
Amsterdam.
Airplanes of the Compagnie Franco-Roumaine make the run Paris-
Prague-Warsaw and Paris-Prague-Constantinople.
Seaplanes of the Aero-Navale connect Antibes, France, with Ajaccio,
Corsica, and will shortly make the connection with Bizerte, Tunis.
Airplanes of the Compagnie Générale d'Entreprises Aéronautiques
(Latécoère lines) fly from Toulouse to Casablanca stop at Perpignan from
where there is an aerial connection with Marseilles and again Casablanca.
Morocco.
There are also the lines Alicante-Oran and Casablanca-Oran.


  p. 1979 (#923)                      #

1925]
1979
Professional Notes
From 1920 to 1925, the results of the aerial lines operation have shown a
steady increase:
Years
Trips Distance Passengers Freight Alail
1920 ........... 2,386 853,959 1,771 77,038 15,660
1921 ....
2,353,455 10,619 261,890 34,840
1922 .......... 7,361 2,798,366
9,502 556,370
167,680
1923 ........... 9,720 3,389,195 11,638 969,001 328,440
1924 ...........11,563 3,647,826 16,729 877,591 532,777
These figures are sufficient to demonstrate the progress made by French
aviation. We purposely refrain from mentioning in this brief study, the
prospects now envisaged and the steps taken for their realization.
The French Customs' service has just made public the figures concerning
France's foreign trade during the first six months of 1925. In these
statistics the amount of imports and exports for June, as compared with
the preceding month, appears as follows:
Imports:
May, 1925
June, 1925
(in 1,000 francs)
Foodstuffs
561,220
642,584
Raw material for industry ........ 1,976,822
1,932,214
Manufactured articles
430,630
416,445
Totals
........2,968,672
2,991,243
Exports:
Foodstuffs
Raw material for industry ........
Manufactured articles .......
Parcel posts .......
239,071
956,030
2,241,885
203,201
252,754
933,849
2,157,094
162,837
Totals
3,640,187
3,506,534
The above figures show that in June, 1925, the value of imports was
higher by 23,000,000 francs than in May. A decrease in value of 134,000,000
francs is recorded for exports.
Concerning imports, the increase affects only foodstuffs (81,364,000
francs). Purchase of raw material and manufactured articles abroad show
a slight decrease, 44,000,000 and 14,000,000 francs, respectively, as compared
with the May figures.
Concerning exports, the decrease affects raw material (24,000,000 francs),
manufactured articles (84,000,000 francs), and parcel post (40,000,000
francs); exports of foodstuffs only show a slight increase of nearly
14,000,000 francs.
The visible trade balance for June, 1925, thus shows an excess of exports
amounting to 515,000,000 francs as against 071,500,000 francs in May, 1925;
in June, 1924, imports were in excess of 300,000,000 francs over exports.
The following table gives the weights (in metric tons) of imported and
exported merchandise for May and June, 1925:
Imports:
Foodstuffs ........
.........
Raw material for industry ........
Manuiactured articles
May, 1925
318,861
3.392,377
108,215
June, 1925
323,658
3,305,604
101,169
Totals
· 3,819,453
3,730,431.


  p. 1980 (#924)                      #

1980
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
Trade Expansion
Engineering, 31 July, 1925.--Since the restitution of Lorraine the iron and
steel production of France has increased to 11,000,000 tons a year, and the
home consumption is about 4,500,000 tons, thereby leaving a huge surplus
output, which must be disposed of in foreign markets. Before Lorraine was
restored to France, the total quantity produced at the mills and forges was
absorbed by Germany, but until a treaty of commerce between the two
countries is signed, that market is practically closed to Lorraine firms.
Under the arrangements which will come into operation on the signing of
a treaty Germany will allow the free importation of 800,000 tons of
iron and steel from the Saar, and producers in that district have undertaken
to indemnify partially the Lorraine mill and forge owners by paying them
a certain sum per ton of iron and steel exported to Germany as a rebate
upon the duties which have to be paid on the Lorraine products. In this
way it is hoped that the Lorraine industry will be able to export an
appreciable quantity of iron and steel to Germany under favorable conditions.
There will, however, still remain a large surplus, which will have to be
disposed of by other means. The French Government has been investigating
the situation very closely with iron and steel firms, and the result is the
inauguration of a new policy which arises out of the special requirements
of Italy in raw material. On account of the considerable development of
the metallurgical trades in Italy, that country has been taking from France
all the scrap iron available. Last year the total quantity amounted to
400,000 tons. The French Government recently decided to restrict the
exports of scrap iron, and an arrangement has been entered into with the
Italian Government whereby the quantity of scrap iron exported to Italy
will depend upon the Italian purchases of French rolled iron and steel. For
every 120,000 tons of scrap iron Italy will have to take 15,000 tons of rolled
iron and steel. Should Italy purchase more than that amount of manu-
factured material, it may take one and one-quarter tons of scrap iron for
every ton of rolled steel. When the Italian purchases of rolled material
exceed 90,000 tons, scrap can be supplied at the rate of one ton for every
ton of rolled iron and steel until the total reaches 150,000 tons, when the
amount of scrap iron authorized to be exported to Italy will be one ton to
every two tons of rolled steel. At the same time it is hoped to arrange for
the free importation into Italy of French rolled iron for building purposes
in return for the suppression of the proposed export duty on scrap iron.
This arrangement has not yet come into force, but it is giving the greatest
satisfaction to French mill and forge owners, who see in the ingenious
method of forcing the hands of foreign buyers a safe way of disposing of
their surplus production of rolled iron and steel.
French Mine Laying Submarine Boats
Engineering, 14 August, 1925.—The mine-laying submarine boat Pierre-
Chailley, of the French Navy, has cost slightly over 7,000,000 francs. Her
length is 70 m. (229 ft. 8 in.); her surface displacement is 900 tons, and her
displacement immersed, 1,200 tons. For laying when immersed the boat
carries 64 mines, weighing 508 kg. (10 cwt.) each, placed in 32 cells amid-
ships between the two hulls, 16 on each side. The armament consists of
two torpedo-launching tubes and one 10-cm. (3.937-in.) gun. The boat is
propelled by two engines of 900 h.p. each. The surface speed is 14 knots,
and the radius of action close upon 3,000 miles. The Moniteur de la Flotte,
which gives these figures refers also to the Mauricc-Caillot, another French
mine-laying submarine boat, which has recently completed in the Mediter-
ranean an endurance test of fifty days' duration. Her surface speed is 16.2
knots, the speed immersed being 10.4 knots. The Maurice-Caillot has a dis-


  p. 1981 (#925)                      #

19251
1981
Professional Notes
placement of 932 tons on the surface, a radius of action of 3,150 miles at
II knots, and when immersed the boat can cover 112 miles at 5 knots. The
armament consists of six torpedo-launching tubes and one 75-mm. (2.953 in.)
gun. The boat carries for laying when immersed 27 mines, arranged at
the upper part, above the inner hull and ballast, disposed in three lines
of 9 mines each. The mines are so placed that the axis of the anchoring
weight is horizontal, the float being toward the bow of the submarine; the
mines rest on six friction rollers on their frame, on two rails made of angle
bars fixed to the hull. An endless chain passes under each line of mines
and serves to move the mines aft for laying. In travelling aft on the guide
rails the mines are ultimately inclined 60° to the horizontal previous to
their release, the required motion being given by two electric motors whichi
act by gearing on the three lines. The motors are designed to lay the mines
of one line at the rate of one every twelve seconds, and a speed of 5 knots
for the boat; this corresponds to an interval of 30 m. (98 ft.) between
each two mines laid. The three sets of mines, or any two of them, can be
laid simultaneously, when the mines are suitably spaced apart, or any single
line can be laid separately. The movement of the mines to the stern and the
action of laying have no appreciable affect upon the trim of the boat.
ITALY
The Economic Situation in Italy
Engineering, 14 August, 1925.—The two economic factors chiefly re-
sponsible for Italy's increasing commercial and industrial prosperity are,
firstly, the country's wealth in water power, which, in all probability, will
eventually render her industries largely independent of coal supplies; and,
secondly, the satisfactory way in which she has managed to settle, tempo-
rarily, if not finally, her labor troubles. These two questions are among
those alluded to in a report recently issued by the Department of Overseas
Trade. This report shows that down to December 31, 1923, as many as
4,129 concessions for the exploitation of water power had been granted by
the authorities, the estimated horsepower available reaching the total of
3,430,209. Furthermore, quite 60 per cent of the equipment was completed
and in full working order by the date above mentioned. The progress being
made in the development of the country's hydro-electric resources is illus-
trated by the fact that twenty-four of the generating stations now in the
course of construction will generate 2,209,000,000 kilowatt-hours per year,
while a further number of fifty-six stations, capable of generating
3.908,000,000 kilowatt-hours, is being planned. One of the most recent of
these hydro-electric installations, the Tirso plant in Sardinia, which was
described in Engineering, vol cxviii, page 632, was completed in 1923, and
was formally opened by the King in April, 1924.
The linking up of power stations situated in different parts of the country
forms a noteworthy feature of Italian hydro-electric installations. In mid-
winter, when the water derived from the melting snows in the Alpine
regions is at a minimum, the rainfall on the slopes of Appenine Range is at
a maximum ; at other seasons conditions have, therefore, been interconnected
with plants located in the Appenines, the two sources of power thus comple-
menting one another whenever necessary. By this means a continuous
supply of electrical energy is assured in industrial districts at all seasons.
This coordination scheme is gradually being made more complete, and the
connecting up of many of the remaining stations is being pushed forward.
The coal and coke imported into Italy amounted to over 11,000,000 metric
tons in 1924, as compared with 9,000,000 tons in 1923, and 10,000,000 tons in
1912. In view of the increasing utilization of the water power resources
of the country, it is somewhat surprising to find that the consumption of


  p. 1982 (#926)                      #

1982
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
coal in 1924 is greater than was the case in pre-war days. This indicates
that, not only is an important revival taking place in Italian industry, but
also that developments have arisen in many new directions. Increased hydro-
electric power facilities have created new industries for which coal is a
necessity. On the other hand, the opinion has been expressed that although
the quantity of coal imported is likely to be maintained at the present level
for a number of years to come, and may indeed increase still further, the
time will eventually come when the available water power has been harnessed
to the fullest extent, and the need for solid fuel will diminish. In 1912 the
percentage of British coal imported amounted to 86 per cent of the total :
in 1923 this figure had fallen to 71 per cent, and in 1924 a further fall to
52 per cent was registered. This state of affairs is chiefly due to the im-
portation of German coal on reparation account (amounting, in 1924, to
over 3,500,000 tons). On the other hand, quantities received from Germany,
other than reparation coal, and from the United States are steadily increasing.
As has been indicated above, one of the most potent of the factors con-
tributing to the improved economic situation of Italy, is the lack of strikes.
In 1919, nearly 19,000,000 working days were lost to the nation owing to
labor troubles; in 1923, the number of days so lost amounted to only 295,929.
Again, unemployment, although subject to seasonal influences, has steadily
fallen since February, 1922, when there were 600,000 unemployed persons,
the maximum for the post-war period. The number of unemployed workers
on November 1, 1924, totalled only 117,059. A piece-work rate agreement,
introduced in 1920 by a large engineering firm in Northern Italy, as a result
of negotiations between employers and workmen, has been very successful.
Each employee is paid a fixed wage according to his rating and trade; over
and above this, a collective piece-work bonus is granted. The latter is a
premium on collective efficiency in the various shops, and is calculated on
the rapidity of output over a certain accepted standard. Taken as a whole,
the system has much to recommend it; it undoubtedly has the effect of
promoting the esprit de corps as well as the efficiency of the workers.
The artificial silk industry has made very rapid strides in recent years,
and it is now claimed that Italy takes second place in the world production
of this commodity. It is one of the country's most important industries.
The textile industry generally, is also in a prosperous condition. The Italian
rubber industry is steadily growing in importance and exports, which
consist chiefly of motor tires, are steadily increasing. Metallurgical centers
located chiefly in Northern and Central Italy produce a fair proportion of
the country's requirements in pig-iron and steel. Large quantities of the
materials are, however, imported annually, and the United Kingdom has a
good share of the trade in cast iron. Imports from France have, never-
theless, increased rapidly, and, in 1923 and 1924, they succeeded in surpassing
the British figures. In semi-manufactured products such as iron and steel
bars, rods and sheets, Great Britain has lost ground in recent years. In
1924, France practically monopolized the trade in bars and rods, and the
United States and Czecho-Slovakia, that in sheets. It is satisfactory to
note, however, that imports of British tin plate are increasing and are far
above those from all other countries. Large consignments of iron and steel
scrap enter Italy annually and, here again, imports from British are very
small compared with those from France. The demand for British machine
tools is very limited and is confined to special articles, the bulk of this trade
goes to Germany, who has dominated this section of the market for some
years past. Most of the requirements in agricultural machinery are supplied
by Germany, although competition from the United States and from France
is growing keen. In the matter of spinning machinery, however, British
manufacturers, who only held a small share of the trade in 1922, now head
the list of importers by a substantial margin. Supplies of electric apparatus


  p. 1983 (#927)                      #

1925)
1983
Professional Notes
generally are chiefly obtained from Germany. With regard to imports of
machinery, it is pointed out in the report that the high price demanded for
British goods is, in some measure, due to the elaborate packing rendered
necessary by the long journey by sea. This difficulty would, it is suggested,
be to some extent overcome by a more extended use of the Harwich-
Zeebrugge train ferry.
During the year 1924, eleven vessels representing a gross tonnage of
79,200, a considerable increase over the previous year, were launched from
Italian shipbuilding yards. These comprised seven steamships, the gross
tonnage of which was 47.990, and four motorships, fitted with Diesel engines,
having a gross tonnage of 31,300. At the end of 1924, seventeen steamers
and eight Diesel-engined motorships were in the course of construction.
Although both the number and the tonnage of ships, launched or begun, in
1924 were greater than in 1923, the improvement was not so great as had
been expected.
The administration of the state railways was recently taken over by the
newly-formed Ministry of Communications, which has pursued a policy of
rigid economy in order to diminish the working deficit. In the financial year
ending June 30, 1924. the expenditure exceeded the revenue by 298. I
million lire, and it is the 'aim by the new ministry to make accounts balance
as soon as possible. These has been a substantial increase in traffic receipts
during the past year, and appreciable reductions in expenditure have been
effected in various directions. The total length of normal gauge track ad-
ministered by the State measures 15,745 km., a further length of 670 km. is
under construction. Some 780 km. of line have been electrified and are in
operation, and another stretch of 810 km. is in course of electrification.
Taken altogether, the economic position of Italy is considered to be
stronger at present, than at ary other time since the war. The internal
national debt is less and the revenue from taxation has not only increased,
but has been placed on a more stable footing. The increase in the importa-
tion of raw materials and the decrease in imports of manufactured goods
denote a revival of industrial activity. Furthermore, this renewed activity,
which is taking place in almost every line of production, is certain to add
to the national wealth and may, at some future date, become a factor in
creating an increased demand for the finer and more finished goods produced
in British factories.
JAPAN
The Commercial and Industrial Position in Japan
Engineering, 31 July, 1925.---Apart from the great loss of life and the
extensive material damage caused, the earthquake which befell Tokyo and
Yokohama on September 1, 1923, was a very severe blow to Japanese
prosperity. The government was obliged, on the one hand, to vote sums for
reconstruction purposes, and, on the other, to make allowance for a reduction
in revenue consequent upon the disaster. The decrease in tax receipts due to
the catastrophe amounted to 130,000,000 yen, and, in order to avoid serious
disturbance of the national finances, public works were postponed, and ex-
penditure was cut down in every way possible. While the earthquake
undoubtedly exerted a profound moral effect on the people, the productive
power of the nation was not greatly affected because the devastated areas
were largely residential, and main industrial centers such as Kwansai and
Kyushu remained intact. There was, however, a decrease in exports during
1923 and a considerable increase in imports. According to the Financial and
Economic Annual of Japan for 1924 issued by the Department of Finance,
exports amounted to 1,448,000,000 yen in 1923, and imports for the same
year totalled 1,982,000,000 yen, The figures for 1922 were 1.367,000,000 yen


  p. 1984 (#928)                      #

1984
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
and 1,890,000,000 yen respectively. Thus, the excess of imports over exports,
already considerable in 1922, appears to have been further intensified by the
earthquake in the Kwanto District
In the matter of imports it is interesting to note that in 1923 British
India supplied more than a third of the requirements in "pig-iron and steel
blooms and billets”; China took second place. Imports from Great Britain
in this section have decreased rapidly since 1919, and the share held by the
United States has dwindled still more quickly. In "iron and steel bars, rods,
plates, sheets, wire goods and tubes,” trade with Great Britain has increased
steadily since 1921, chiefly at the expense of the United States, although
Germany and Belgium are serious competitors. The import trade in
machinery and machine parts, which was very steady during the years
1920-22, decreased in 1923. The United Kingdom supplied goods to the
value of 36,000,000 yen in 1923 and 42,000,000 yen in 1922; the values of
goods supplied by the United States were 42,000,000 yen in 1923 and
57,000,000 yen in 1922. Imports from other countries are small in com-
parison, although here again German trade is increasing. Since 1917, the
first year quoted in the annual, United States manufacturers have had the
motor car import trade entirely in their hands. In 1923, cars to the value
of 13,000,000 yen were imported, nearly 10,000,000 of which were received
from American concerns. Building materials are largely supplied by the
United States, the only competitor worthy of note in the year 1923 being
Germany. Other imports include raw cotton and cotton goods, foodstuffs,
and wool and woollen goods. British India supplies more than half the
raw cotton, Australia has three quarters of the wool import trade, while
Great Britain has for years practically monopolized the market in cotton and
woollen tissues. Exports consist chiefly of silk goods of all descriptions,
together with manufactured articles of a very varied nature and foodstuffs.
Some coal is exported, China and Hongkong being the two chief customers.
Agriculture holds an important place in Japan, and large areas are
devoted to the cultivation of such crops as rice, barley, and wheat; a con-
siderable income is also derived from the State forests. The silk industry
is steadily growing, the total raw silk produced in 1922 being 24,000,000
kilograms as compared with 14,000,000 kilograms in 1913. Tea planting
is another important branch of industry. Turning to mineral products,
the annual shows that, whereas outputs of silver, copper and lead have
fluctuated and, in the main, have diminished since 1914, the production of
pig-iron and steel has increased enormously. In 1914 the outputs of pig-iron
and steel were relatively insignificant; the figures were 74,049 metric tons
and 15,385 metric tons, respectively. This tonnage rose during and after
the war almost without a break, and for the year 1923 the output of pig-iron
was 530,536 metric tons, and that of steel 495,433 metric tons. The quantity
of coal mined in 1914 is recorded as 22,000,444 metric tons; the output for
1923 was 29,000,000 tons, showing a steady increase. On the other hand, the
production of crude petroleum has decreased from over four million
hectolitres in 1914 to less than three million in 1923.
Although introduced at a comparatively recent date, the Tokyo-Yokohama
section having been laid down as a government undertaking in 1872, railways
in Japan are extending rapidly. In 1905, there were 4,778 miles of track,
and a point of interest is that, out of this total, 3,247 miles are owned by
thirty-eight different companies. The main trunk lines themselves are
controlled partly by the state and partly by private companies. Economic
expansion demanded greater efficiency than was possible under these con-
ditions and, in 1906, a railway nationalization bill was passed; under this
measure the government acquired nearly 3,000 miles of privately owned
roads. In 1923, the mileage open to traffic measured over 9,000 miles, as
compared with 6,500 in 1913; in the same interval the number of locomotives


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Professional Notes
increased from 2,700 to 4,300. During the same decade the number of
passengers more than trebled, and the goods traffic nearly doubled.
The territories constituting Greater Japan-Korea (Chosen), Formosa
(Taiwan), Japanese Saghalien (Karafuto), and Kwantung Province are all
undergoing development.Korea is largely an agricultural and pastoral
country, but iron and mild steel are also exported, although quantities have
fallen off somewhat since 1921. Korean railways are expanding, and the
weight and value of traffic of all descriptions are steadily increasing. In
addition to gold and silver, zinc, copper, lead, iron, tungsten ore, graphite,
coal and koalin are also found. The country is especially rich in gold, iron,
graphite and anthracite. Afforestation is encouraged, and is making great
headway; the fisheries are also important. Industry in Korea is, it is stated,
in a promising condition generally. The chief products of Formosa are
derived from its agriculture, and its fisheries, but in the northern portion
of the island are situated deposits of gold, silver and copper; petroleum and
coal are also found. The latter commodity holds an important position
among the exports of the island. Extensive beds of coal have also been
found in Saghalien. Three important seams have been discovered-northern,
central and southern. Of these the central is the most extensive; it is sixty
miles in length, and is from three feet to nine feet thick. Mining operations,
however, have only just begun, and are at present conducted on so small
a scale as barely to satisfy the needs of the island. Petroleum has also
been located, and the matter is being further investigated. The South
Manchurian Railway Company, created for the purpose, is fast increasing
its importance, as the following figures show. The passengers carried in
1914 and 1923 were 3,600,000, and 8,760,000, respectively, the tonnage of
goods hauled was 5,700,000 in 1914, and 13,370,00 in 1923, while the net
income increased from just under 15,000,000 yen in 1914 to nearly 56,500,000
yen in 1923.
As is the case with the majority of other nations, the after effects of war,
and of the boom period immediately following it, still exercise an influence
upon the commercial and industrial welfare of the Japanese people. There
has been no remarkable fall in the price of commodities, and wages are, on an
average, three times as high as they were in 1912, with a tendency to further
increase. Moreover, the national debt, which in the years 1915-18 stood at
2,500,000,000 yen, reached a total of over 4,000,000,000 yen in 1924. Taxes
averaged thirteen yen per head of the population in the year 1923-24, or
about double the pre-war figure. Taken altogether, however, the situation in
Japan is one of progress, and the outlook is promising.
UNITED STATES
Another Side of the 5-5-3 Argument
By Captain Dudley W. Knox, U.S.N., Ret., Scientific American, August,
1925.—That the American battleship fleet is substantially stronger than the
British battleship fleet is the principal contention of an article by Mr. J.
Bernard Walker in the May issue of the Scientific American.* In conclusion,
presumably on account of such alleged superiority, he limits his recommenda-
tion of what should be done to our battleships to "repair work.”
It should be understood that the last Congress, following the recommenda-
tions of the Secretary of the Navy and the President, authorized extensive
“modernization" of six of our oldest battleships. Nine million dollars, one
half of the total amount ultimately necessary, was appropriated for this
specific purpose.
The modernization plan is much beyond the scope of anything which could
be characterized as “repairs.” It amounts to extensive alteration of design.
* This article was copied in the Professional Notes in the June issue.


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[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
The deck is to be armored as a protection against aerial bombs and the
plunging effect of modern long range gunfire. The underwater hull is to
be protected against damage from mines, torpedoes, and bombs, by fitting
"bulges" or "blisters," which, as their name indicates, are structures built
on outside the old hull. They project ten feet or more beyond the original
underwater side of the ship and extend longitudinally through most of her
length.
Another large item of modernization is the conversion of boilers and
bunkers so that oil fuel may be used instead of coal. This will increase
not only the maximum distance which the vessel can steam, but also her
dependability for sustained high speed-a very important feature in battle.
All of these large alterations of design are intended to increase the
fighting power of the ships—to bring our fleet more nearly to a 5-5-3 ratio
in battleship strength which it is now below. Naval officers and civilian
officials recommended increasing the elevation limits of our battleship guns
to give them greater range as an additional item of modernization necessary
to the same end. The British Government considered that this would be a
violation of the Naval Treaty. French and Japanese authorities supported
the American view as to treaty interpretation. President Coolidge main-
tained that we had a legal right to elevate the guns but settled the con-
troversy by striking the gun elevation item out of the modernization program
on the ground of national economy.
Mr. Walker has revived the gun elevation controversy after it had been
settled for several months. There would be little need of my further
perpetuating it herein, except that his argument to prove that we did not
require greater gun elevations furnishes equally good reasons against the
other items of modernization. If our fleet is already above the standing
of five in the 5-5-3 ratio, if we already “have the whip hand," as he claims,
there is little reason in our spending $18,000,000 for the purpose of attaining
that ratio, in the face of a firmly held national policy of economy.
The three principal fallacies in Mr. Walker's exposition of the relative
strength of the American and British battleship forces pertain to questions
of (1) maximum firing range, (2) speed, and (3) tactics. In order to
demonstrate these fallacies the more clearly I will refer to his own tabular
statements.
With regard to the question of maximum firing ranges eight of the
British capital ships listed have the ability to shoot about 5,000 yards farther
than stated. No such correction can be applied to any of the
American battleships. The discrepancy arises from the fact that the five
ships of the Royal Sovereign class, together with the Repulse, Renown, and
Warspite, are equipped with "bulges" or "blisters.” As explained above,
these queer structures are for the .primary purpose of protection against
underwater damage from mines, torpedoes and bombs, but they offer an
important additional advantage of permitting the ship to be easily heeled
over a few degrees, by pumping the oil or water, which they normally
contain, from the blister on one side while leaving the other side filled.
The manifest effect of this upon guns pointed outboard is to increase the
angle between their axis and the horizontal, and thus permit them to shoot
farther.
This is not an ideal way of gaining increased range, but it is much better
than no way. The disadvantages are a temporary reduction in speed and
impaired armor protection on account of lifting the lower edge of the armor
belt close to or above the water-line. The latter disadvantage disappears
when the enemy guns cannot reach. Special appliances for quickly flood-
ing or emptying compartments, such as are commonly employed in sub-
marines, may make it possible to promptly rectify the disadvantages when-


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1987
Professional Notes
ever circumstances so demand. As early as 1915 the British used this
general method of increasing the range of battleship guns while in action
against German ports on the coast of Belgium.
In addition to the eight British ships named as being already able to
shoot about 5,000 yards farther than shown, we must count a similar increase
for four more in the near future, since according to British handbooks
the Admiralty intends to fit all ships of the Queen Elisabeth class
with "bulges." This will make a total of twelve ships of 5,000 yards greater
maximum range than stated.
But, even this is not the whole story of British gun range in relation
to the need of our modernization to prevent falling farther behind in the
theoretical 5-5-3 ratio. The British are now building two battleships stronger
than anything afloat. Each will carry nine 16-in. guns, which, in all proba-
bility, will outrange anything that we have. These new ships, begun in
1922, should be completed next year and will replace the four old British
battleships standing at the bottom of the list.
The average maximum range of their fleet after the above mentioned
changes will be about 28,600 yards, as compared with 24,600 yards for our
fleet at present. The addition of "blisters" to six of our ships should
enable the American fleet to average about 26,000 yards, leaving the British
an advantage of about 2,500 yards in fleet range. This gunnery aspect of
the comparison is also greatly affected by the aggregate weight of the pro-
jectiles fired in each broadside, which gives an index of the damage to be
expected from hits. These figures are, British 315,000 pounds, and American
262,000 pounds.
Let us now pass to a consideration of speed, an element of great im-
portance in getting guns to a position from which they can reach an
enemy. From this viewpoint oil-burning ships have become almost a
necessity. Large fleet battles last a long time and require much high-speed
steaming. In coal-burning ships boiler grates, furnaces, and uptakes become
foul and firemen become tired, sometimes cutting down the maximum speed
several knots. On the other hand, oil-burning ships can maintain their
maximum paper speed without difficulty.
We now have six coal-burning battleships and the British, four. All of
these carry a small amount of oil for emergency use—the British ships twice
as much as ours. But, in about a year the British coal burners will be
scrapped and replaced by the Rodney and Nelson, when their entire fleet
will be on an oil-burning basis. Their slowest battleships already have a
battle advantage of about i knot over ours, which will become greater when
their new ships come out. Unless we modernize, this disparity will be
greater and the difficulty of a large proportion of our ships getting into
action will be increased.
This matter of speed also enters very vitally into the final question to be
discussed—that of tactics. It will be noted that the entire American fleet
closely approximates 21 knots maximum speed, whereas nearly half the
British ships are capable of doing 25 knots. Four of their ships are rated
around 20 knots-a very high speed for capital ships. This gives to the
British fleet a great tactical advantage readily convertible into terms of
range and gun power.
Mr. Walker's conception of a fleet battle being fought in two parallel
columns is more than 100 years out of date. For centuries such was the
practice rigidly required by official fighting instructions. It took a Nelson
to explode the old fallacies and to demonstrate the crushing effect of applying
afloat the well-known land practice of concentrating superior forces against
a part of the hostile formation. Since Nelson's day that has been the great
cardinal objective in naval tactics. By a successful concentration on the


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[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
Russian flank at the battle of Tsushima the Japanese fleet quickly annihilated
with small losses to themselves the theoretically stronger Russian fleet.
One can search the diagrams of the battle of Jutland in vain for any
reasonable approximation to a parallel column position as between the two
main fleets. From the beginning to the end of this long battle, Admiral
Jellicoe's principal tactical object was to get on the German flank, where
all of his broadsides could bear on the few German ships which could reply
from the end of their line. Jellicoe reached this advantage position three
times but failed to reap the advantage of it, principally on account of the
misty weather.
It is true that a slow fleet may seek to bring on a parallel fight-but only
as a measure of self defense to prevent the fast feet from reaching the
coveted flank position. In the case under discussion the nine fast British
ships have such a great superiority of speed that they should normally be
able to gain the American flank in spite of anything the latter fleet can do.
Naturally, they would choose the particular flank nearest to the remaining
eleven slower British ships. Thus, one American Alank would be subjected
to the concentrated fire of the entire British feet, while the other flank
would be out of range. Such a tactical concentration would inevitably
mean an early sweeping and British victory.
To sum up: The approved modernization of the American fleet can
serve only to reduce the existing superiority of the British fleet-a superi-
ority which otherwise would be even greater when British modernization
now in hand has been finished. With the modernization now in progress
for both fleets completed the British will then have a superiority of about
2,500 yards in average range, twenty per cent in weight of broadside fire,
and a very marked tactical advantage incident to speed. The logic of
modernizing our ships is apparent.
The writer is not one of those who believes that war is probable between
this country and Great Britain. He does believe, however, in the principle
of equality of naval power with our cousins, which principle was formally
subscribed to at the Washington Conference. Such equality seems more
likely to preserve peace between the two great leaders of the world than
any substantial difference in sea strength, since equality means a greater
mutual respect for each other's interests in the trade rivalries which seem
certain to continue.
The Great Pacific War
H. C. Bywater's New Work, Naval and Military Record, 5 August,
1925.-Readers of Sea Power in the Pacific will remember the surprising
insight into the problems of the Pacific, and the strength of the Japanese
and American Navies, shown by the author. In that book Mr. Bywater
discussed at some length the problems which would confront the United
States in the event of a war with Japan. He has now written another book
which further develops this subject. Instead of an abstract strategical
treatise, the new book takes the form of the history of a war between the
United States and Japan, which takes place between 1931 and 1933.
The main purpose of the book is to prove that, notwithstanding the
handicaps of distance, and, on America's side, the want of naval stations in
the western area of the Pacific, means might still be found of establishing
contact between the main belligerent forces and thus forcing matters to a
decisive issue. In his preface Mr. Bywater says: “It is often averred that
war between the United States and Japan is out of the question, if only
because their respective fleets, divided as they are by thousands of miles of
ocean and with no intermediate bases of supply, could never get sufficiently
close to engage. This, however, is probably a delusion, as I have endeavored
to show."


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Professional Notes
In the body of the history, strict attention has been paid to the tactical
possibility of all movements and to accurate descriptions of all islands and
harbors, and no effort has been spared to ensure technical accuracy through-
out the narrative.
The book opens with an account of the causes that led to the war.
Japan, torn by internal dissension, and jealous of American influence in
China, forces a quarrel on the United States. The Japanese people rally
to the national emergency, and the internal disorder ceases. Before the
formal deciaration of war a Japanese freighter blows up in the Panama
Canal, completely blocking the Culebra Cut and preventing the Atlantic
naval bases from being of any use.
Cable and radio communication between the United States and the
Philippines are interrupted. The formal declaration of war is almost
unnecessary, for a few hours after the commencement of hostilities the
American Asiatic Squadron is completely destroyed by a Japanese battle
cruiser squadron. This action proves the futility of manning foreign
stations with ships which are too weak to fight and too slow to run away.
Two invading forces land in the Philippines, not without appalling loss of
life, and the small American force is cut to pieces and the remnants are
forced to surrender. After a spirited defense, the island of Guam falls
into the hands of the Japanese, who also carry on a campaign against the
American trade with the Far East. The Japanese observe the rules laid
down at Washington with the regard to the treatment of non-combatants.
At this stage a surprise raid on the coast of California is made by two
Japanese submarines, with an aircraft carrier and fuel-ship. This rouses
the American people and huge shipbuilding schemes are launched.
A foolhardy attempt by the Americans to found a base in the Bonin
Islands is frustrated, and a commerce-raiding campaign is commenced by
the Americans in the western Pacific. The Americans continue to attempt
to take a suitable base for their main fleet within striking distance of Japan,
and succeed at last. The Japanese are confused by the presence of a fleet
of dummy battleships. Several of these are sunk, and the Japanese are
deceived into thinking that the strength of the American fleet is less than
it actually is. Too late they discover their mistake, and are involved in an
action with the American main fleet. They are crushed by the superior
weight of metal. The losses are, on the American side, two capital ships; on
the Japanese five.
The tide now turns. Chinese armies overrun Manchuria, Guam is taken
by the Americans, the Philippines are retaken, and an armistice is signed
after two and a half years of war. In the peace which follows neither side
benefits, and all conquests are returned. Both sides are exhausted.
Many interesting points come out in the course of the narrative, and the
account of the fleet action is particularly illuininating Aircraft enthusiasts
will be interested in the account of the attack by the American aircraft
at the outset of the battle. “..... At 3:20 P.M. fifty planes, the
majority being bombers and torpedo-carriers, took off from the Lexington
and Saratoga, with orders to .... attack the leading battleships of the
first column they sighted.
"In forty minutes they were within view of the Japanese fleet and were
rushing to attack, when suddenly a powerful flight of enemy machines, which
had been patrolling at a higher level came dropping down to intercept them.
To give a detailed account of this scrimmage in the air would be impossible.
In the first minute of the fierce mêlée nearly a dozen machines went down
out of control. Thrice amidst the crackle of machine-gun fire did head-on
collisions take place, the Japanese aviators never hesitating to ram when
otherwise baulked of their prey, preferring to immolate themselves rather
than allow the American bombs to reach their ships. Less than half of the


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[Oct.
U. S. Navul Institute Proceedings
American machines broke through and made for the Japanese fleet, which
received them with a hurricane of fire.
"How different now were the circumstances from those which aviation
enthusiasts, deceived by artificial peace tests against helpless targets, had
pictured! From the ships below turning and twisting at high speed, came
a varitable stream of shell, the incessant detonations of which caused the
planes to rock as in a gale of wind. The air was alive with steel splinters
and poisoned with acid fumes. Still the indomitable pilots held on, and
were almost in range, when six Japanese machines crossed in front of them
at lightning speed, leaving a thick curtain of yellowish vapor in their
wake as they passed. As the American fliers drove through this curtain
they were instantly conscious of a choking sensation, accompanied by rack-
ing head pains. Through some culpable oversight they had not been
equipped with gas masks. The omission was fatal. All but two of the
machines dived headlong into the sea, their pilots having been disabled by
the noxious fumes."
This is a book of special interest both to the naval officer and to the
student of naval warfare, and can be recommended to those of the general
public who desire to form an accurate impression of modern naval warfare.
The Great Pacific War: A History of the American-Japanese Campaign
of 1931 to 1933, by Hector C. Bywater. Constable and Co., London. Ios. 6d.
AERONAUTICS
Commercial Airports and Airways
By Hiram Bingham, U. S. Senator from Connecticut, U. S. Air Services,
August, 1925.—The great need of the hour is not faster or larger airplanes.
Commercial transport planes are now in operation which carry 1,000 pounds
of mail and express a distance of 300 miles in three hours. It is already
possible to save fully half of the time now used up in railroad transportation.
We all agree that time is the most precious thing in the world. The only
way to enjoy more time is to save what we have. We know that an hour
saved is an hour earned. Time flies. If you want to catch up with it, you
must fly, too. The question is how to do it, how to develop commercial
aviation. The answer is not better planes but better airways-not faster
aircraft but real airports. We do not need more practical planes. We do
need more navigable routes. We do not need safer airships. We do need
reasonable aids to navigation. America is slow in developing commercial
aviation because Americans think in terms of railroads and motor transport
rather than in terms of navigation. We built railroads before we had
depots. We used motor cars before we had public garages or even service
stations. So we think we should be able to use airplanes before there are
airports, yet we did not have ocean liners until we had safe harbors. We
had no ocean commerce until we developed seaports. We shall have no
air commerce until we develop airports.
Today commercial aviation does not need rare aeronautical inventive sense
so much as it needs the application of common marine sense. We do
not need brilliant inventors so much as we need the courage and foresight
of foreign traders. Our problems are the problems of ocean shipping.
In shipping circles they understand the difference between a port, a
harbor, and an anchorage. If we want to save time by using commercial
aviation, we must learn the difference between an airport, a flying field,
and a landing field.
The landing field is only an anchorage. There your ship may stay
under certain favorable conditions, but will avoid it if she can. An
anchorage is better than nothing; so is a landing field, even though small
and restricted.


  p. 1991 (#935)                      #

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Professional Notes
A flying field is only a natural harbor. Grassy plains make good
landing fields, but the existence of grassy plains no more satisfies the air
pilot looking for good terminal facilities than does a natural harbor satisfy
the demands of a sea captain looking for good port facilities.
An airport is like a seaport. It has to be constructed by man to meet
the needs of aircraft. Seaports attract ocean commerce. It takes real
airports to attract air commerce. Nature has provided Aying fields and
landing fields, but man must build hangars and shops and provide run-
ways, night lights, radio service, weather data, and other facilities. Then
will commercial aviation make great strides and those cities which have
adequate airports will flourish accordingly. New York, San Francisco,
and Seattle are blessed with wonderful natural harbors. When they took
advantage of what Nature had given them and built adequate docks, they
became great seaports. If they are to become great airports, they must
speedily study the requirements and build accordingly.
The mere fact that a town is on the seacoast and the waters near it
extend to all parts of the earth, does not mean that town will become a
great seaport. The mere fact that a town is swept by the winds and
breezes which flow freely around the earth does not mean that that town
can easily become an airport. It takes foresight and community effort.
The problem of providing an adequate airport for New York City is a
very serious one. It has been suggested that a small landing field might be
provided by placing a flat roof over such a structure as the Pennsylvania
Railroad Terminal, but this would involve enormous expense. While it
would provide a landing field for passenger and mail planes within a
few minutes of the center of the financial district, there would be no room
for hangars or shops and these would have to be provided somewhere in the
suburbs. Furthermore, the air over a great city is always very rough
and adds to the danger of landing. Those who have landed in a small
boat on a rough and rocky coast can imagine something of the difficulty.
I have sometimes thought that in the Hackensack Meadows, New York
possessed the possibilities of creating a great airport at relatively low
expense within a few minutes' run of Broadway and Fifth avenue. It
almost seems as though Nature had kept man from making any extensive
use of the Hackensack Meadows in order that when the need came there
might here be developed one of the world's great airports without the
necessity of tearing down many buildings or making very expensive changes.
Another possibility would be to persuade the federal government to
transform Governors Island into a great federal airport. Since airports,
like seaports, will ultimately benefit everybody, the government ought to
aid in their procurement. In the past, towns have built municipal docks,
states have built magnificent roads, and the nation has provided aids to
navigation and improved the navigable waters. In the future, towns must
build municipal airports, states must provide safe air routes and the
nation must furnish aids to air navigation and improve navigable airways
and air harbors.
There are so many air routes capable of being developed that we can
not expect the federal government to do much more than provide a few
large airports for the great centers of population, and lighthouses and
beacons for those airports which are developed by states and municipalities.
I would like to see a law passed authorizing the United States Bureau of
Lighthouse to establish lighthouses for air navigation wherever proper air-
ports have been completed by states and cities. This bureau is well equipped
to render this kind of aid to night flying.
It should be a state matter, on the other hand, to make the ap-
proaches to airports safe and to provide an adequate number of landing
fields along recognized air routes. The states of the Union should authorize


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U. S. Naval Lustitute Proceedings
their highway commissioners to order wires to be placed underground
when they are a real inenace to air navigators in entering or leaving an
airport. States must also prevent obstacles from being erected or trees
irom being permitted to grow on lands which serve as entries to the air-
port. Today we recognize the government's right to prevent any citizen
from erecting anything which shall be an obstruction to navigation in our
navigable waters. Reasonable restrictions must be made to the surround-
ings of state and municipal airports. There are many purposes for which
lands in the immediate vicinity of an airport can be used without inter-
fering with aerial navigation. Such are the questions which our law makers
must begin to study and prepare to solve. This is the kind of aid which
the authorities of our government must be prepared to give to air naviga-
tion rather than subsidies.
Heavily laden ocean steamers carrying precious cargoes to the ends of
the earth avoid coast towns where the water is shallow, the harbors un-
protected in time of storm, landing facilities poor, charts inaccurate, buoys
missing, and submerged rocks unmarked. They need deep safe channels and
all the aids to navigation which man can devise and provide. Similarly,
heavily laden air transports will avoid those cities and towns where it is
impossible to make safe landings; where the navigable air is restricted by
high buildings, wires, and other obstructions; where the necessarily slow
climb of the commercially profitable heavily laden air transport finds it
impossible to reach the open air without flying too long near that dangerous
"lee shore" the far too solid earth.
A small fast motor boat, carrying a few people and a few pounds of
cargo, can easily utilize a great many natural harbors without great ex-
pense. Similarly, a small airplane, carrying one or two passengers and a
few pounds of freight, can utilize small flying fields without incurring
great danger or expense. On the other hand, a commercially profitable
ocean-going steamer, carrying many passengers and much freight, must be
provided with the requisite port facilities before it will come to your city at
all.
Similarly, the profitable commercial air transport must have good port
facilities before it will come to your city at all. Not only must there
be a large open field, having long runways, north, south, east, and west, so
as to take advantage of whatever wind is blowing, but there must be level
spaces beyond the landing fields so that the heavily laden cargo plane will
not be obliged to climb rapidly. The more rapidly a plane must climb in
order to reach the safe and open air, the less load it can take. The more
room a plane has in settling down to earth, the more safely can it land with
a heavy load.
The more one studies the question the more striking becomes the resemh-
lance between aviation and navigation. Accidents at sea are due in part
to storms, very rarely to defects in seagoing vessels, and most frequently
to dangerous coasts and to lack of safe harbors when one is driven by storm
on a lee shore without sufficient power to head out into the open Ocean.
Most accidents in the air are due to similar causes; very few are to detec
in the plane; most are due to being driven by loss of power down toward
"lee shore” where there are no safe harbors, no landing fields to ma
the airways safe. These must be provided.
Ocean routes through safe, navigable waters between two well-equippe
ports along well-charted coasts are relatively safe, and the insurance charges
are low. Similarly, air voyages between two well-equipped airports over a
well-charted route provided with frequent landing fields are relatively sale
and should have a low rate of insurance.
Ocean voyages between some of the South Sea Islands are dangerous
and the insurance rates are very high, even though each island may hay
a
have


  p. 1993 (#937)                      #

1925)
1993
Professional Notes
a good natural harbor. The insurance rate is high and the risk is great
because the route is through uncharted seas, where there are few light-
houses, many shoals, no warning beacons, and no good harbors.
The United States, desirous of enjoying the benefits of ocean trans-
port, has spent large sums of money deepening harbors, charting coasts,
and providing many aids to navigation. If we are desirous of enjoying
the benefits of air transport, we must similarly spend large sums of money
broadening flying fields, charting navigable airways, and providing all
possible aids to aerial navigation.
As exporters, your interest in saving time may be divided into two
parts: that which concerns the time consumed in going or sending to the
port of embarkation, and that which is consumed between the time your
cargo leayes America and its arrival at a foreign port. For the first
part you now rely largely on motor cars or trains, and for the second
part you rely on steamships or sailing vessels. Some cargoes you are
willing to entrust to the slowest vessels ; for others you seek the fast ex-
and most expensive. For some things you use the mails and fast ex-
press, and even then regret they are not faster. For such things the niodern
airplane offers you great assistance and great possibilities.
The commercial transport plane will save you at least 50 per cent
of the time as compared with the fastest trains or motor cars, and
probably the time is not far distant when this saving will be increased.
Bills of lading, commercial papers, small articles of great value but little
bulk, can all be safely sent by airplane if proper terminal facilities are
provided at either end and a proper airway is provided over which to fly.
In other words, the pilot and the airplane are ready to help you but they
can not do it until aids to navigation similar to those which exist for
ocean commerce are provided by the federal government for air commerce,
and until your city provides an airport.
As regards the second part of the journey in which you are interested,
it does not seem likely that the airplane will be able (certainly not in the
near future) to afford you much practical assistance. Professor Warner,
the aeronautical engineer of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
warns us that anything in the nature of commercial operation of airplanes
over a nonstop route having a total length of more than 600 miles, is still
far distant. On the other hand, the airship, or lighter-than-air craft, is
capable of offering you great assistance, but here again this assistance must
always depend on the nature of the terminal or port facilities which are
provided.
Ocean vessels which are lighter than the water they displace can safely
cross the ocean. Airships which are lighter than the air they displace may
safely cross the ocean. Repairs to the power plant can be made without
descending. Recent experiments have shown that properly constructed air-
ships can ride out very considerable gales. Rigid balloons of the Los
Angeles or Shenandoah types can make sixtyor seventy miles an hour.
This does not enable them to compete with railroad trains over land, or
with the transport airplane capable of going nearly twice as fast. On the
other hand, the airship's speed of sixty miles an hour is more than twice as
fast as the fastest ocean liners. Airships can therefore save you at least
50 per cent of the time consumed in sending mail and express over seas.
I believe that successful commercial aviation over land depends on the
use of airplanes and in meeting their requirements. Successful commercial
flying over seas depends on using rigid airships and meeting their require-
ments. An airport suitable for the use of Zeppelins is totally different
from one suitable for the use of commercial transport planes. They
have, in fact, little in common, and their possibilities of competition are
very different. I should like to see our navigable military lighter-than-air


  p. 1994 (#938)                      #

1994
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
craft given over entirely to the Navy and not divided between the Army
and Navy as at present.
A comparative study of the difficulty involved in safely bringing the
airplanes of the World Flyers across the Atlantic and the bringing of the
rigid airships, the R-34 and the Los Angeles, across the Atlantic shows
forcibly what is meant regarding the advisability of using the lighter-than-
air ships for overseas service. The R-34, in July, 1919, took only two
days to cross the Atlantic and only two days and a half to return to Eng-
land. The only serious difficulties encountered were those due to lack of
proper terminal facilities at this end. On the other hand, as I hardly need
to remind you, the world flyers spent weeks in getting across the Atlantic,
and were repeatedly delayed by fog and ice in their courageous efforts to
find a comparatively safe airway via Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador.
In conclusion, permit me, then, to call to your attention certain things
which must be done if we are to enjoy the enormous saving of time which
commercial aviation will permit. In the first place, we must plan to use
airplanes over land and airships over sea. In the second place, we must
recognize the absolute necessity of proper terminal facilities. There must
be adequate airports if there is to be much air commerce. There must also
be suitable flying fields as air stations and frequent landing fields to use
as anchorages in time of storm and stress. In the third place, we must
realize the necessity of developing navigable airways and providing them
with adequate charts, lighthouses, buoys, beacons, radio, and other neces-
sary aids to navigation. Finally, our municipalities must aid by furnish-
ing airports. Our states must aid by providing airways. Our national
government, through a bureau of air navigation in the Department of
Commerce, must do as much to aid air commerce as it has done to aid ocean
commerce. Time flies. If you would catch up with it you must fly, also.
Superchargers
Aviation, July 27, 1925.-The basic factor which determines the power
output of an internal combustion engine is the weight of fuel burned in
a given time. However, for proper combustion a fixed ratio must be said
that the power depends directly on the weight of air used. The volume
of air used at each stroke is constant, but the weight depends upon the
engine speed, throttle opening, resistance through the intake valves, etc.
Concurrent with the development of the internal combustion engine, at-
tempts have been made to increase the weight of air burned in any given
engine by some external device. For example, most Diesel engines have
separate cylinders in excess of the quantity that these cylinders would
ordinarily suck in. A supercharger is simply an external air pump designed
to supply this extra air. In an aviation engine it is used to maintain con-
stant density of intake air as higher altitudes are reached and the sur-
rounding atmospheric pressure decreases.
For a supercharger to be economically applied to an airplane engine
three factors must be considered : namely, weight, bulk and fuel consump-
tion. The Liberty engine weighs with water approximately 920 lbs. and
develops 420 b.h.p. At 25,000 ft. this brake horsepower is only 162.5 or
38.7 per cent of the sea level power. The weight per horsepower at this
altitude is 5.66 lb. per h.p. The actual weight of a supercharger to maintain
approximately sea level power on the Liberty engine is 182 lb, which
includes the increased weight of the cooling system. The total weight of
the supercharged Liberty engine is 1102 lb., the power output at 25,000 ft.
is 400 hp., and the weight per horsepower is 2.75 lb., or less than one half
of that of the unsupercharged engine. The power of the unsupercharged
Liberty would have to be increased to 246 per cent to bring it up to that
of the supercharged engine. It is obvious that such an increase would


  p. 1995 (#939)                      #

1925)
1995
Professional Notes
be impossible without greatly increasing the weight and bulk of the engine.
In fuel consumption the supercharged engine has a decided advantage,
as the constant density of intake air maintained by the supercharger keeps
the specific fuel consumption at approximately the normal rate, while the
specific fuel consumption of the unsupercharged engine increases 12.8 per
cent in 25,000 ft.
From the foregoing it is apparent that a supercharger can be economically
applied to an aviation engine and is an actual necessity for high altitude
flying.
As a supercharger is nothing more or less than an air pump, there are
several types available for consideration. First, is the piston type or
compressor. This operates at low speeds, is complicated and bulky mechani-
cally, and, although having a high efficiency, is altogether too large and
heavy to be considered for aviation purposes.
The second classification is the rotary blower, such as a gear pump, vane
pump, or Roots blower. Pumps of this type are less bulky than the piston
type, operate at speeds as high as 5,000 r.p.m. with an efficiency of perhaps
Engine Exhaust
Pipe to Turbine
Turbine Exhaust A
Exhaust Intake
Discharge ......
Yalre Yare
By-pass Valve.
Intake
Pipe
Air Compressor
Housing ........!
Nozzle
Carburetor
Air Intake
tahes
Rotor
Turbine
Housing
Air Impeller.
Member
Air Discharge
to Carbureter
SCHEMATIC LAYOUT OF A TURBO SUPERCHARGER
60 per cent. The Roots blower has certain mechanical disadvantages due
to the gear train necessary to give the two rotating impellers the proper
angular rotation. The clearances must be sufficient to prevent the impellers
from rubbing together, or from rubbing against the compressor housing and
yet must be small enough to prevent excessive leakage of air. As the
pressure rise with this type of pump is independent of speed, it is used
with some success as an automobile supercharger.
The third classification is the centrifugal compressor which consists
simply of an impeller rotating in a closed casing. It is extremely simple
mechanically as it has only one moving part; it operates at very high speeds
and has a slightly better efficiency than the rotary blower. The type of
pump used for the compressor must be considered in connection with the
method of drive. In large multi-engine airplanes it is possible to use a
separate driving engine such as a 150 h.p. Hispano engine of similar engine
with a pump which supplies air both to the driving engine and to the other
engines of the airplane. A separate drive of this nature is equally as
reliable as the other engines installed in the airplane and the failure of the
supercharger will not affect the operation of the other engines at low
altitudes.


  p. 1996 (#940)                      #

1996
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
The supercharger may also be geared directly to the engine which it
supercharges and, in this case, its reliability is dependent upon the gear
drive. A rotary blower, such as the Roots, can be built to operate at
crankshaft speed; however, a double set of gears, one on each side of the
two impellers in the Roots blower, are necessary to provide the proper
angular rotation of the blower and keep the impellers from rubbing. These
gears are necessary regardless of whether or not the blower is driven at
crankshaft or higher speeds. While some experimental work has been
done by the National Advisory Committee on this type of blower, it is not
yet possible to draw any definite conclusions as to its ultimate success
in large units, and it certainly offers more mechanical complications than
the centrifugal type.
When the centrifugal blower is driven by direct gearing from the
engine a gear ratio of from 8-1 to 15-1 is necessary as the blower must
operate at speeds between 20,000 and 30,000 r.p.m. in order to reduce the
size of the compressor and to provide a sufficient compression ratio. The
high speed of the impeller when geared directly to the engine involves con-
siderable difficulties in the gear train and bearings due to the inertia of the
moving parts. The Engineering Division has done a great deal of ex- ·
perimental work along these lines and has had no difficulty with gear trains
operating at pitch speeds as high as 7,000 ft./min. Ball and roller bearings
have been used in these installations to maintain accurate gear centers and
to reduce the friction and lubricating difficulties. The problem of ball
bearings at these high speeds is one of centrifugal stress in the bearing
itself rather than loads imposed by the operation of the supercharger. It
is yet uncertain whether or not it will be possible to successfully operate
anti-friction bearings at such high speeds and still have them thoroughly
dependable over a long period of time. The inertia of the impeller and the
moving parts and the fact that they are directly geared to the engine
causes frequent fatigue failures, due to the transmission of engine vibra-
tion and torsional vibration of the crankshaft through the gear train. In
the smaller sizes, geared superchargers have operated quite successfully
without mechanical difficulties and have shown reasonable reliability over
long periods of time.
Another method of drive is by means of a gas turbine developed first by
M. Rateau of France and later by the General Electric Company for the
Air Service. It offers probably the simplest and most reliable method of
drive for an airplane supercharger with the necessary speed of a centri-
fugal compressor, and as developed by the Engineering Division at the
present time the superchargers are reliable and run practically without
attention. As there is no mechanical connection between the supercharger
and the engine it is not affected by variation in engine speed, or by vibra-
tion within the engine itself. The control is extremely simple and the
installation rugged and reliable.
Either a geared or turbo supercharger used with the Liberty engine to
maintain sea level pressure at 20,000 ſt. requires approximately 56 h.p. In
the geared supercharger the power is taken directly from the crankshaft of
the engine, and therefore a Liberty engine to maintain its full power output
at 20,000 ft. must develop at the crankshaft 476 h.p. The power required
to drive the supercharger is partially recovered, as the engine has its
carburetor air supplied at 14.17 lb. per pressure and exhausts at only 7 lb.
per sq. in. pressure. The combustion space at the end of the exhaust stroke
is therefore filled with gas at only 7 lb. pressure and on the intake stroke
the engine takes in not only the volume of air equal to the displacement of
the piston but also sufficient volume to fill the combustion space up to the
pressure of the intake air. The additional volume of gas taken into the
cylinders and the low atmospheric pressure of the exhaust produces an


  p. 1997 (#941)                      #

1925]
1997
Professional Notes
increase in the mean effective pressure which practically compensates for
the power required to drive the supercharger. At lower altitudes, however,
this is not the case. Take for example flying just at sea level. There is
a minimum power required to drive the supercharger, which in this case is
between 20 and 30 h.p. At sea level the supercharger is not supplying
additional power to the engine, so the actual output of the engine will be
420 h.p. less this minimum power required to drive the supercharger. In
other words, a gear driven supercharger develops less than normal horse-
power at low altitudes and will maintain approximately full normal horse-
power at the rated altitude of the supercharger.
The turbo supercharger derives its power from the residual heat and
energy left in the exhausted gas at the end of the expansion stroke. The
gas is collected in a manifold, discharged through a series of nozzles onto
a turbine wheel mounted on the same shaft as the impeller. At altitude, the
exhaust gas is kept slightly above sea level pressure, and expands through
the nozzles to an atmospheric pressure of approximately 7 lb. per sq. in.
The energy taken from the gas during this pressure drop is sufficient to
drive the turbine and supply a full charge of intake air at sea level
pressure. The control is by means of a gate which allows the unused por-
tion of the exhaust gas to discharge directly to the atmosphere. At the
ground the gate is kept wide open and the exhaust is discharged at
atmospheric pressure, so that the supercharger places no load on the
engine at sea level. It should also be noted that at altitudes the power
output of the engine does not exceed its normal output on account of the
supercharger, whereas in the gear drive the crankshaft must transmit not
only the normal horsepower of the engine but also the necessary horse-
power required to drive the supercharger. The first problem in the design
of a turbo supercharger was the extreme heat of the exhaust gas. This is
in the neighborhood of 1,500 ° F. Difficulty was encountered with the
manifolds and nozzle boxes used to convey the gas to the turbine wheel.
The joints between the exhaust ports and manifolds, and between the
various parts of the manifolds would crack and leak, the nozzle box and
nozzle ring would warp and distort and frequently rub against the turbine
wheel. The turbine buckets rotating at better than 20,000 r.p.m. were
severely stressed and as the elastic limit of their material was reduced
by the high temperature of the gas in which they operated the buckets
frequently pulled out and broke. In the compressor end difficulties were
met with the bearings, methods of mounting, and minor construction details.
The Engineering Division after five or six years steady development
and experimental work on the turbo supercharger has overcome practically
all former difficulties. The manifolds are joined together by flexible ex-
pansion joints wrapped with asbestos tape and covered with a steel clamp.
These joints maintain the necessary pressure and are flexible enough to allow
for expansion and contraction without stressing the manifolds or other
structure. The supercharger has been mounted on the side of the airplane
with the turbine wheel overhung, and exposed to the slipstream of the
propeller. In this way the buckets are kept cool, the exhaust gas is dis-
charged freely to the atmosphere without unnecessary back pressure, and
the operating conditions are much more favorable than in the former
nose type supercharger. The bearings have been simplified and at the
present it is very unusual to have any bearing trouble, in spite of the fact
that speeds as high as 34,000 r.p.m. have been maintained. Developments
are now under way to replace plain babbitted bearings of the turbo super-
charger by ball and roller bearings which will be packed with lubricating
fluid and will remove the necessity for pressure oil feed to the super-
charger, and drain lines from the bearings. This will simplify the instal-
lation and make it unnecessary to consider the lubrication of the super-


  p. 1998 (#942)                      #

1998
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
charger except at long intervals, when the lubricant in the bearings will be
renewed by means of a grease gun, such as the Alemite or other high
pressure system.
The early difficulties in supercharging were not with the supercharger
alone, many changes were found necessary in the engines to which the
supercharger was applied. In fact, overcoming of these latter difficulties
was equally as important as the development of the supercharger itself.
When air is compressed its temperature is raised due to the heat of
adiabatic compression. As the supercharger is not 100 per cent efficient, the
turbulence, friction losses, and so forth, increase the temperature of the
compressed air. When this air was pumped to the carburetors the result-
ing mixture temperature was so high that preignition would occur on full
throttle running at altitude. The obvious solution was the addition of an
air cooler, located between the supercharger and the carburetors, to reduce
the air temperature to a point at which the engine would run satisfactorily
without preignition or detonation. In spite of the air cooler, the mixture
temperature at altitude is hotter than the mixture in an unsupercharged
engine. It has been found that spark plugs with small electrodes soon
become incandescent and are themselves a contributing factor to preigni-
tion. Plugs with larger electrodes having adequate cooling surface over-
came this trouble. In a number vi cases where spark plugs with the
porcelain insulation were used, the porcelain cracked, pieces fell in the
engine cylinder and were blown out with the exhaust gases into the turbine
wheel and the pieces of porcelain striking the buckets moving at very high
velocity completely wrecked them. For this reason, mica plugs are used
on all turbo-supercharged engines.
The next serious difficulty was with the fuel systems. On the old
machines the pressure system was used, but as the engine was super-
charged and the pressure in the carburetor bowl increased, an excessive
pressure was required in the gas tank to force the fuel in the carburetor
against the supercharger pressure. Fuel pumps were then tried but it was
found that they would not work satisfactorily unless they were located
lower than the level of the fuel in the tank, as at high altitudes the fuel
would vaporize and could not be lifted to the level of the pump. The
present satisfactory fuel system consists of a gear pump driven by a
flexible shaft and located lower than the fuel tank. Fuel flows to the pump
by gravity and is pumped through a supercharger relief valve to the
carburetors. This relief valve consists of a spring loaded valve on which
is maintained the same air pressure as the supercharger maintains in the
carburetor. The valve therefore keeps a constant differential between fuel
in the feed line and in the carburetor float bowl.
The additional power output of a supercharged engine requires ap-
proximately 30 per cent increase in the radiating surface, for, although
the air temperature at altitudes is much lower than that at the ground, the
density of the air is so much lower that the cooling effect per square
foot of radiator surface decreases. Eighty degrees C. is an ideal operating
temperature for an airplane engine. If this temperature is maintained
at high altitudes, a point is reached where the water commences to boil
due to the lower atmospheric pressure. It is therefore necessary to seal the
entire cooling system and have a pressure relief valve which will not
open until a pressure greater than atmospheric is reached.
The torque of a supercharged engine is practically constant with increas-
ing altitude and as the propeller torque decreases with altitude, the propeller
will speed up. For this reason, a larger propeller must be used which holds
down the engine r.p.m. at the ground and allows it to speed up and main-
tain its normal r.p.m. at the designed altitude of the combined unit.


  p. 1999 (#943)                      #

1925)
1999
Professional Notes
In the earlier tests no suitable oxygen system was available and a small
hand controlled system was made up using compressed oxygen in bottles.
The pressure was reduced as through a Rego reducing valve, and the
oxygen delivered directly to the pilot's mouth through a flexible rubber
hose. This system is reliable and, although somewhat wasteful of oxygen,
it has not been replaced up to the present time . Ithough the Material Section
has achieved some success with a liquid oxygen system, which is more
pleasant to use than the compressed oxygen as there is no taste whatsoever.
In order to relieve the pilot of the necessity of continually watching his
supercharger operation, an automatic control has been devised which will
maintain sea level pressure at any altitude without attention on the pilot's
part. The first of these controls worked satisfactorily up to 10,000 to
12,000 ft., but was not sufficiently powerful to maintain constant adjust-
ment above that altitude. Tests are being carried on and it is quite possible
to build an automatic control in the light of our present knowledge which
will satisfactorily relieve the pilot of the necessity of continually adjusting
the supercharger.
In connection with the supercharger, two special instruments are used.
One is a differential fuel pressure gage which shows the difference in
pressure between the fuel in the feed line and in the carburetor float
chamber. The other is a pressure gage which s.'ows the supercharger air
pressure either in lb./sq. in. or in feet altitude. The former gage is now
replacing the latter type and the pilot by operating the supercharger control
maintains the carburetor pressure at sea level, or 14.7 lb. per sq. in.
The application of the supercharged engine to airplanes increased the
performance which it was possible to obtain. For pursuit work the first
installation was made on an Orenco having a 300 h.p. Hispano engine. The
ceiling of the ship unsupercharged was approximately 22,000 ft., and with
the supercharger, somewhat better than 33,000 ft. The ceiling of the
Martin Bomber without load has been raised from 14,000 ft. to ap-
proximately 28,000 ft. by means of the supercharger, while the ceiling with
full military load has been increased from 7,000 to better than 12,000 ft.
A DH4 with full military load and supercharger will reach an altitude of
28,000 ft. against approximately 18,000 ft. unsupercharged. It should be
noted, however, that all of these installations have been made on existing
airplanes, and that, with one exception, no airplanes have been designed
to take full advantage of the supercharged engine. It is therefore reasonable
to assume that even better results will be obtained when this is done. The
one exception the Kerber-Boulton C05, which was designed around the
supercharged engine, successfully broke the world's altitude records, carry-
ing weights of 250, 500 and 1,000 kg. In addition, it had a ceiling of around
34,000 ft. At the present time all new aviation engines are being designed
to accommodate either a gear driven or turbo supercharger and practically
all engines that are used in the Air Service from now on will be equipped
with some type of supercharger.
Inaugural Flight of Goodyear “Pilgrim,” World's Smallest
Lighter-than-air Craft
Aviation, 24 August, 1925.- The Pilgrim, the world's smallest airship
and the first commercial lighter-than-air craft to be inflated with helium,
was christened and sent on its inaugural flight in Akron, Ohio, July 18 by
its builders, the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company.
The little airship, designed for P. W. Litchfield, first vice president of
Goodyear, while intended for pleasure cruising, is regarded by the manu-
facturers as largely a demonstration ship and will be used in certain tests
and experimental work.


  p. 2000 (#944)                      #

2000
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
The Pilgrim is 110 ſt. long, 45 ft. high, and has a capacity for 50,000 cu.
ít. of helium, being approximately one-fiftieth the size of the Zeppelin
Los Angeles.
Powered with a 60 h.p. Lawrence radial engine, the small air cruiser has
a maximum speed of almost 60 mi./hr. and a cruising radius of from 10 to
20 hr., the economy in fuel consumption being pronounced.
Besides the pilot and motor mechanic, facilities for the transportation
of two passengers are provided for in the streamlined cabin suspended
directly under the envelope and entirely enclosed.
A portable mooring mast has been devised which can be set up any-
where that 250 ft. of level ground is available, and attached to the mast
the airship will revolve with the wind. Other masts are also in the con-
struction stage in the Goodyear factory.
Mr. Litchfield believes that the future of this type ship may bring
mooring masts at country clubs and on private estates and even the holding
of airship regattas in the same way that motor boat and yachting clubs now
have similar events, bringing all the pleasures of yachting to those who live
inland.
The general use of these small airships is conditioned on helium. There
is plenty of the inflation gas available in the ground and Congress last year
authorized the sale of surplus helium for commercial use.
The helium supply in the past has been limited by government ap-
propriations but with a market for helium the government plant could
be kept in operation throughout the entire year making possible all the
helium commercial or private owners want.
The Pilgrim will be operated in the vicinity of Akron during the
remainder of the summer and early fall, Mr. Litchfield announced.
ENGINEERING
The World's Marine Engineering Situation
Marine Engineer and Motorship Builder, August, 1925.—Lloyd's Register
Shipbuilding Returns for the quarter ended June 30 show that the tonnage
under construction in Great Britain and Ireland-1,093,587 tons-is about
72,000 tons less than at the end of March, 1925, and about 423,000 tons
less than the tonnage building twelve months ago, and it should be pointed
out that the tonnage on which work was suspended at the end of June,
1925, amounts to 76,000 tons, as compared with only 52,000 tons at the end
of June, 1924. The average tonnage building during the twelve months
immediately preceding the war was 1,890,000 tons, i.e., 796,000 tons more
than the present total. A slight decrease is shown in the tonnage commenced
during the quarter, namely, 189,805 tons, as compared with 202,352 tons
during the first quarter of 1925, and the tonnage launched during the present
quarter-298,161 tons-is 40,959 tons lower than that for the previous three
months.
The tonnage of vessels now building in the world which are to be fitted
with internal-combustion engines amounts to 1,129,912 tons, while the
tonnage of steam vessels under construction is 1,212,525 tons. The motor
tonnage thus equals over 93 per cent of the steam tonnage, showing the
remarkable development which is taking place in the adoption of this system
of propulsion. The tonnage of motorships building at the end of June in
Great Britain and Ireland-399,070 tons-amounts to 58 per cent of the
steam tonnage under construction. In Denmark, Germany, Holland, Italy,
and Sweden the motor tonnage under construction greatly exceeds the
steam tonnage, the combined totals for these five countries being 216,257
tons of steamers and 645,600 tons of motorships. The world figures include
115 motorships each of between 5,000 and 10,000 tons ; five of between
10,000 and 15,000 tons; and seven of between 15,000 and 25,000 tons.


  p. 2001 (#945)                      #

1925)
2001
Professional Notes
MARINE ENGINES UNDER CONSTRUCTION IN THE WORLD*
This table shows the country of build, the type, number, and horsepower of engines (intended for the propulsion of
seagoing vessels) which are either under construction at the works or being installed on board vessels at the end of June, 1925.
Oil Engines
Total
Country of Build
Steam Engines
Reciprocating
Turbines
No. Indicated No. Shaft
Horsepower
Horsepower
No.1 Indicated
Horsepower
No. 1 Horsepower
201
158,114
274
C..........................
Great Britain and Ireland ..
Denmark......
France. ....
Germany...
Holland.....
Italy........
Japan........
Norway.......
Sweden .......
Switzerland....
United States...
Other countries ...
344,315
2,100
67,700
39,775
28,980
18,950
15,170
17,150
2,530
67,000
28,000
3,000
44,000
ha mal-Il www la
206,773
125,950
21,100
227,026
62,465
36,720
6,100
2,800
57,000
46,940
14,790
600
709,202
128,050
155,800
294,801
94,445
99,670
21,270
19,950
62,460
46,940
66,840
21,950
2,930
5,450
17,850
46,600
3,500
Total .......
323
559,970
|
353, 144
284
808,264
641.
1,721,37
* This being the first publication of a statistical table on these lines, it has not been possible to obtain in time complete information
particularly as regards steam engines for vessels of small tonnage building abroad and not classed with Lloyd's Register. The horsepower is
compiled from figures furnished by the engine makers.


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2002
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
For the first time since these returns have been issued by Lloyd's Register,
figures have been compiled showing the number and the horsepower of the
marine engines (intended for the actual propulsion of vessels) under con-
struction in the world. The new table, reproduced herewith, shows that the
total horsepower of the engines building or being installed on board vessels
at the end of June, 1925, amounted to 1,721,378 h.p., of which 709,202 h.p.
are building or were built in Great Britain and Ireland, 294,801 h.p. in
Germany, 155,800 h.p. in France, 128,050 h.p. in Denmark, and 433,525 h.p. in
other countries. These totals, as stated in the return, are not quite complete
as regards steam engines for the smaller vessels building abroad and not
classed with Lloyd's Register. Excluding engines of less than 500 h.p., the
average horsepower of each set of engines reaches 3,356 h.p., the average
for reciprocating steam engines being 1,995 h.p., for oil engines 4,027 h.D.,
and for steam turbines 10,387 11.p.
Tables Nos. 6 and 7 show:
The type of machinery used for the propulsion of vessels.
Particulars of the oil tankers, of the trawlers and other fishing vessels,
and of the steamers fitted for burning oil fuel.
The following summary will not be without interest :
The first table shows the great development which has taken place in the
use of steam turbine engines and of internal-combustion engines. There are
now 1,404 steamers of 9,100,274 tons fitted with turbine engines and 2,145
vessels (including auxiliary vessels) of 2,714,073 tons fitted with internal-
combustion engines, as compared with 730,000 tons and 220,000 tons re-
spectively in 1914. It may be stated that while during the last twelve
months the tonnage of steamers fitted with reciprocating steam engines has
actually decreased by about 152,000 tons, there has been an increase of
738,000 tons in the tonnage of motorships and of 305,000 tons in the tonnage
of vessels fitted with steam turbines.
An analysis of the type of machinery now employed shows that there are
now recorded in Lloyd's Register twenty-eight vessels with a total tonnage
of 440,000 tons, which are fitted with a combination of steam turbines and
reciprocating engines. Another interesting particular is that in the case of
thirty-six vessels, with a tonnage of 110,000 tons, a comparatively new
system of propulsion has been adopted: viz., electric motors connected to
the screw shaft, these motors being supplied with current from generators
which are driven either by steam turbines or oil engines. Of the 939
tankers (of 1,000 tons and upwards) with a total tonnage of 5,177,630
tons, 315 of 1,708,978 tons are registered in Great Britain and Ireland and
374 of 2,281,324 tons are registered in the United States. Of the 3,490
steamers of 17,804, 1 22 tons fitted for burning oil fuel, 730 of 4,679,695 tons
are registered in Great Britain and Ireland and 1,855 of 8,999,050 tons are
registered in the United States of America.
The figures in these two tables enable a comparison to be made between
the respective employment of coal and oil fuel at the present time as
compared with 1914.
1914
1925
Per Cent of Per Cent of
Total Gross Ton- Total Gross ton-
nage
nage
Sailing vessels and sea-going barges
8.06
Oil, etc., in internal-combustion en-
0.45
4.20
gines
Oil fuel for boilers ...,
2.65
27.54
Coal
64.76
3.50
88.84
100.00
100.00


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1925)
2003
Professional Notes
It will thus be seen that only 64.75 per cent of the tonnage of the
merchant marine now depends entirely upon coal, while in 1914 the per-
centage was nearly 89. The tables show the total tonnage of certain types
of vessels, which information would be most useful in estimating the
tonnage available for general cargo and passenger purposes. The tonnage
of the tankers of 1,000 tons gross and upwards amounts to 5,178,000 tons,
and in addition there are some 50,000 tons of vessels of less than 1,000 tons
each. The tonnage of trawlers and other fishing vessels amounts to 796,000
tons.
The Propelling Machinery Controversy
The Shipbuilder, August, 1925.—While there has been an increasing
tendency to regard the internal-combustion engine as the prime mover of
the future for ship propulsion and the percentage of new tonnage equipped
with this type of engine continues to increase, there is still a large volume
of opinion which holds that the possibilities of the steam engine are not
exhausted and that improved steam installations will eventually prove at
least as good as, if not better than, oil engines. The latest phase of the
controversy began with the paper read by Sir John H. Biles before the
spring meetings of the Institution of Naval Architects on the relative
commercial efficiency of internal-combustion engines and steam engines for
high-speed passenger vessels. In this paper the author stated that his own
investigations as to the relative merits of these different methods of provid-
ing power to propel ships did not confirm a statement made by Sir
Fortescue Flannery, and endorsed by Lord Bearsted, that the use of
Diesel machinery for marine propulsion would become so common that only
for special purposes would the steam engine be able to hold its own. In
the paper referred to, Sir John outlined proposals for geared turbines
taking steam at 500 lb. pressure and 700° temperature from water-tube
boilers, and gave figures for the intermediate liner and the high-speed
channel types which showed considerable commercial economy for the
proposed steam installations compared with Diesel machinery. For these
high-pressure and high-temperature proposals, Sir John quoted the au-
thority of Sir Charles Parsons. These innovations have been successfully
introduced on land; and the Parsons Marine Steam Turbine Company have
since developed the proposals for Parsons high-efficiency installations to
cover other types, as, for instance, an installation of 5,000 S.H.P. for a
14-knot vessel, as mentioned in the last issue of this journal.
The proposals of Sir John Biles led to an animated correspondence with
Lord Bearsted and Sir Fortescue Flannery published in the Times. When
authorities differ so widely it is difficult to come to any conclusion, and in
the present stage of development of the Diesel engine it is evident that no
hard and fast decision can be reached. In the newspaper correspondence
Sir John adhered to the figures which he gave before the Institution of
Naval Arcchitects for the proposed improved steam engine, which, he stated,
had not so far been challenged, and which seemed to show to some that
the steam engine was still a more economical instrument for the propulsion
of ships. When this fact was fully appreciated, Sir John added, it would
inevitably follow that the production of Diesel engines would decrease.
He held that the advantage the steam engine possessed over the Diesel was
that it was much lighter and cheaper, while the advantage the Diesel type
had was that it required less weight of fuel.
In endeavoring to hold the balance between the disputants, it must not be
overlooked that the proposed high-efficiency steam system has yet to under-
go the test of actual experience under service conditions at sea. It does not
necessarily follow that satisfactory land practice will be equally satisfac-
tory at sea. Sir Charles Parsons himself condemned electrical propelling


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2004
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
machinery as unsuitable for marine purposes. Moreover, water-tube boilers
have now been available for use on merchant ships for many years, and their
use with the high pressures now proposed.
To revert to the case of the Diesel engine, it must be borne in mind
that this type is of comparatively recent adoption and has not the history of
the steam engine behind it. If the possibilities of steam have not yet been
exhausted, it is likewise true that the Diesel engine is as yet more or less
in its initial stage. Rapid as its development has been, the field for improve-
ment is still great, and with the experience now available there is no doubt
that in the next few years the Diesel engine will prove a still more
formidable rival. Designers of Diesel engines are working with the
object of reducing weight and cost to those of steam installations, and it
is only a question of time before they succeed, as the fundamental advantage
of fuel economy possessed by the Diesel engine is too important to lose,
not only in regard to the beneficial effect on ship design, but on the con-
servation of oil supplies. The fact that this country has to draw its oil-
fuel supplies from abroad is a disadvantage so far as the price of oil com-
pared with that of coal is concerned.
With the position as it is, there is room for both the steam engine and
the Diesel engine. In short-distance trades the steamship is a better
commercial proposition at the moment. In the long-distance trades the
Diesel engine, even in its present stage of development, shows a marked
commercial superiority. In the case of the large, high-powered passenger
ships now being equipped with Diesel engines, experience in service alone
will show whether they are superior to steamships. It would appear that
the development of the Diesel engine for this type of vessel will probably
be in the direction of faster running units in conjunction with gearing, as
has been the case with steam turbines. For the highest powers the steam
turbine in conjunction with gearing still holds the field; and if the next
development of such powers is higher steam pressures and temperatures, a
new phase of marine engineering will have been inaugurated. Such a
development, however, will not stop the progress of the Diesel engine, as its
advantages in many respects are so marked; and the friendly rivalry now
existing between designers of steam and Diesel engines augurs well for
the improvement of both.
Selectina Forced-Feed and Motor-Cylinder Oils for Navy Use
By J. G. O'Neill, Chief Chemist, Engineering Experiment Station, An-
napolis, Md., Power, 4 August, 1925.-In order to determine whether a
lubricating oil has been properly refined, it is necessary to subject it to a
large number of tests. Since crude oils from different sources have
different properties, so also do the refined oils from these crudes have
different properties.
To judge properly of the qualities of lubricating oils one must be
familiar with the characteristics of crude and refined oils from various
sources. When this information is available, all tests conducted on lubricat-
ing oils are of value, but lacking such information, not many of these are
of much worth. In other words, capable testing of lubricating oils is
comparable to the intelligent testing of any other engineering material; ac-
count must be taken of the limitations of the material and its suitability for
the purpose intended.
For instance, consider the method of testing forced-feed oils for Navy
use. The oil is first given a thorough chemical examination to show its
freedom from any of the chemicals used in the refining process, its freedom
from organic acids and corrosive compounds, the absence of tarry or
asphaltic matters, the absence of constituents which cause it to emulsify


  p. 2005 (#949)                      #

1925)
2005
Professional Notes
with steam and the absence of excessive quantities of unsaturated com-
pounds, which would tend toward the formation of asphaltic matter or
sludge by oxidation during use.
The physical properties show the source of the oil, whether or not it
has the proper flash and fire points, its property of remaining liquid under
different ranges of temperature, and its ability to maintain a lubricating
film under various conditions of temperature and pressure. The non-
emulsifying or demulsifying properties of the oil with distilled water, salt
water, caustic solution and boiling distilled water are determined in order
to find the resistance of the oil to the formation of emulsions with these
solutions, should it become contaminated with any of them when used aboard
ship.
An endurance test is also conducted, which is equivalent to practically
1,000 hours' service aboard ship; this gives the frictional properties of the
oil, an exact knowledge of the changes which the oil undergoes in service,
the tendency, if any, to gum or sludge, and information of the ability of
the oil to maintain a lubricating film under the most severe conditions it
could possibly meet in service. In addition to these the oil is given a
practical test aboard ship in order to know positively that it is suitable in
all respects for the intended purpose, and also to test the ability of the
refiner to deliver large quantities of the same grade of oil.
Practically the same procedure is carried out in the testing of motor
cylinder or aviation engine oils, with the exception that the practical test
of aviation oil is conducted on a 400-h.p. Liberty aviation engine, mounted
on a test stand. The test is run for five hours with full throttle opening
and all engineering data taken. The remaining used oil is given a complete
examination after the run; from the condition of the used oil the perform-
ance of the engine and the specific consumption of gasoline and oil, the
suitability of the oil is determined.
The choice of a lubricating oil is dependent on a number of conditions:
namely, the temperature of operation, bearing pressure, journal rubbing
speed, clearances of bearings, skill of operator, condition of machinery,
possibility of contamination or dilution of the oil in service, vibration of
machinery and the ability to maintain oil pressure.
In forced-feed lubrication there is formed a film of oil between the
bearing metal and the rotating shaft and the friction generated is between
the molecules of the oil as they tend to slide over each other; very little
friction is due to metallic contact of the shaft and the bearing metal. The
viscous lubricating oils give a thicker lubricating film than the less viscous.
They require more power to shear the oil film and consequently produce
more friction and heat.
The proper viscosity should be that which is only slightly more than is
necessary to prevent metallic contact so that the power consumed by friction
is at a minimum. Since the viscosity of mineral oils varies with the
temperature, the temperature of operation in forced-feed systems controlled
by a cooling means should be sufficiently high so that the friction is low,
yet that the oil has sufficient body to maintain a perfect lubricating film.
The viscous or heavy oils produce a thick lubricating film, and it is for
this reason more difficult to squeeze the heavy oils from between bearing
surfaces. Such oils are used where the bearing pressures are high, the
clearances large or the temperature of operation high.
In a high-speed bearing it is necessary to use a thin oil because it gives
the minimum of friction and because the friction generated by the high
rubbing speed of the journal would be abnormally increased by the use of
a heavy oil. In high-speed bearings the bearing pressure is generally light,
which permits a thin oil.


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2006
Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
Conditions which favor oils of slightly higher viscosity for marine
practice than for shore practice are, the losses from leakage and splashing
decreasing with the increasing viscosity of the oil used, the greater possi-
bility of the presence of vibration which necessitate the presence of a
thicker cushioning film and the great diversity of service that one grade of
oil is called upon to give since it is objectionable to carry a supply of many
different grades.
The care used in the manufacture of the machinery and in its installation
plays an important part in the choice of the proper lubricating oil. It has
been found that very carefully manufactured and installed machinery may
be lubricated with a much thinner oil than would otherwise be possible.
Invariably, inferiority of machinery, poorly installed machinery and
machinery allowed to get in bad condition require the use of heavier grades
of lubricating oils.
Forced-feed and motor-cylinder oils for Navy use are classified as
follows:
Viscosity, Saybolt
Class Universal at. 130° F. Used for Lubrication of
Light .............
100-115
Turbines (bearing only) turbo-
generators up to 100 kw.,
dynamos and sight-feed gaso-
line engines.
Medium ......
125-145
Turbines, turbo-generators, 300
and 500 kw., reduction gears
of small turbines, blowers and
general machinery.
Heavy .......
180-200
Main engine turbines of battle-
ships, and destroyers, reduc-
tion gears, reciprocating en-
gines with forced-feed lubri-
cation.
Extra heavy .....
240-260
Diesel engines of submarines.
Ultra heavy ...... 300-320
High-power and high-speed
gasoline engines with forced-
feed lubrication.
Viscosity at 210° F.
Aviation, winter... 75-85
Aviation engines operating in
cold climates.
Aviation, summer. 90-100
Aviation engines operating in
warm climates.
Forced-feed oils in use increase in viscosity due to the evaporation of the
lowest in viscosity. This is because each of these oils is composed of a
number of different oils of widely varying viscosities and boiling points.
The presence of a large percentage of unsaturated compounds in the oil
will also tend to increase the viscosity of the oil during use, owing to the
fact that these compounds break up and oxidize, producing compounds of
greater viscosity. Unsaturated compounds such as acetylene are so called
because of characteristics of chemical formula indicating instability.
All lubricating oils in service darken in color, due to oxidation of the
oils and the production of asphaltic resins or asphaltic matter. These dark-
colored compounds are produced by the oxygen of the air or oxygen in the
oil itself acting on the unsaturated compounds under condition of heat and
pressure. They are precipitated from the oil by the addition of 88° Baumé
gasoline.
Recently, a mineral lubrication oil of viscosity of 85 sec. at 130° F. was
subjected to the 100-hour test in the endurance testing machine. It con-


  p. 2007 (#951)                      #

1925)
2007
Professional Notes
tained 38 per cent of unsaturated compounds. At the end of the test the
oil was examined and found to contain 19 per cent asphaltic matter by
volume insoluble in 88° Baumé gasoline.
A well-refined mineral oil of the same viscosity, containing not over
8 per cent of unsaturated compounds and subjected to the same test, will
not show more than a trace of matter insoluble in 88° Baumé gasoline. The
asphaltic matter produced in forced-feed oils during use does not tend to
sludge out to as great an extent as that produced in motor cylinder oils.
Sludge produced in motor cylinder oils consists largely of free carbon
either from decomposition of the lubricating oil, or partial combustion of the
fuel and cracked products from the lubricating oil. The carbon is insoluble
in the lubricating oil and settles out; also the oils are contaminated with
gasoline, which exerts a precipitating action on the heavier asphaltic bodies
in the oil and ends to throw them out as sludge.
Forced-feed oil show considerable acidity after long use because the
asphaltic resins produced by oxidation are acid in nature. Motor cylinder
oils are not subject to such a long period of use as forced-feed oils and do
not show the presence in the used oil of as great acidity.
Well-refined forced-feed oils retain their non-emulsifying properties for
a long period after being put into use, provided the lubricating oil system
is clean and all bearings are well fed with oil. Motor cylinder oils, however,
in service rapidly become emulsifying owing to the finely divided condition
of the insoluble matter in the oil.
There is no advantage in the addition of animal oils, vegetable oils or
fatty acids to forced-feed oils, and there are many disadvantages caused by
the emulsifying or corrosive properties of these materials. Neither are
there any good effects from their use in motor cylinder oils, with possibly
the exception of oils of too heavy viscosity, when they may assist the spread-
ing properties of the oil and render slightly better lubrication.
Graphite should not be used, since it greatly assists in the formation of
sludge in both forced-feed and motor cylinder oils and does not reduce the
frictional properties of the oils.
It is believed that with improvement in operation and design of motor
cylinders the same methods of testing and choosing lubricating oils will
apply to motor-cylinder oils as at present apply to forced-feed oils. In the
future, a comparatively few grades of mineral oil may be used for lubricat-
ing purposes instead of the innumerable brands and grades in use at the
present time.
Navy to Make Tests with Pulverized Coal
The Nautical Gazette, 22 August, 1925.-Exhaustive tests to determine
the feasibility of using pulverized coal as marine boiler fuel are to be made
shortly at the League Island Navy Yard under the auspices of the Navy
Department, Bureau of Mines and Shipping Board. The plan for the tests
has been recommended by the Fuel Conservation Committee of the Shipping
Board and is practically certain of adoption, as it is known that all three
departments are anxious to have the trial made. The only question remain-
ing to be settled is as to who shall furnish the coal, of which about 500 tons
will be required for the proposed tests.
It is estimated that the use of pulverized coal will mean savings of from
10 to 15 per cent and possibly even more from present costs of bunker coal
and it is stated that if the tests work out as well as anticipated the intro-
duction of the new fuel will be one of the greatest steps taken in many
years toward the economical operation of ships. It is understood that
burners of several different types are to be used in the proposed tests.
Pulverized coal is now being used very successfully and economically in
large power plants on shore and in these cases a pronounced saving has been


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2008
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
made as compared with existing mechanical stokers firing with the ordinary
sizes of coal. Accordingly, it is expected that a still greater saving will be
shown as compared with hand firing as now practiced on coal-burning ships.
Shipowners are greatly interested in the possibilities of the new develop-
ment and it is expected that an invitation will be extended to private ship-
owners to have representatives of their engineering departments witness the
tests and satisfy themselves of the practicability and economy of the new
system.
. MERCHANT MARINE
Fleet Corporation and Shipping Board Affairs
The Nautical Gazette, 22 August, 1925.-Since President Palmer of the
Fleet Corporation has been permitted by the Shipping Board to take the
initiative in conducting negotiations for the sale of ships real progress has
been made in the disposition of the tonnage. It was only about a month ago
that President Palmer was given this authority but more has been accom-
plished in liquidating the government's shipping properties in that time than
during the past two years. The managing operators of government vessels
have responded with alacrity to President Palmer's hint that they acquire the
ships and services allocated to them, and this week the sale of two of these
services has been consummated. The Carolina Company of Charleston,
South Carolina, has purchased the American Palmetto Line, in which six
ships are involved, and Henry Herberman, president of the Export Steam-
ship Company, has purchased the American Export Line in which service
eighteen ships are operated. The purchasers are to be congratulated on
their action, for they have demonstrated in a practical manner their faith
in American ability to operate American ships in foreign trade. By ac-
quiring these ships and services they have given strength to the American
merchant marine. In selling these services the Shipping Board has acted
wisely, for by so doing the day of the government's withdrawal from the
shipping business has been brought nearer. Other operators are negotiating
for the purchase of their services and it is to be hoped that these negotia-
tions will be brought to a successful conclusion. It has been clearly proved
that the managing operators are the potential purchasers of government
tonnage and the Carolina Company and the Export Steamship Corporation
have set an excellent example for the other operators to follow. We wish
the Carolina Company and the Export Steamship Corporation every success
in their undertaking to operate privately owned American ships in foreign
trade, and hope that their highest expectations will be realized. ,
These are great days for the American Merchant Marine—the days for
which American shipowners have been waiting. The government's obsolete
ships are being sold for scrap, its active ships and services are being trans-
ferred to private hands and its miscellaneous shipping properties are being
disposed of. In other words, the government is rapidly getting out of the
shipping business and the Shipping Board is trying to carry out the provi-
sions of the Merchant Marine Act. Despite all this there are some dis-
gruntled persons who are now beginning to oppose the sale of the ships
and services. So far as we are aware there has not been a single commer-
cial organization in the country which has supported the policy of govern-
ment ownership and operation of vessels. The opinion has been unanimous
that the government should withdraw from its shipping activities. Obviously,
if the ships cannot be sold the government must continue to own and
operate them, and it is surprising that the steps which are now being taken
to liquidate the government's shipping properties and to end the govern-
ment's participation in the shipping industry should be criticized. It goes
without saying that certain individuals and organizations have profited finan-
cially from the operation of government vessels, and it is only natural that


  p. 2009 (#953)                      #

1925)
2009
Professional Notes
these should resent the removal of this source of profit. But, we cannot
understand why the Middle West Foreign Trade Committee should entertain
and express the fear that the board's present ship sales policy is likely to
result in the discontinuance of the services. It is clearly set forth in the
contracts of sale that the purchaser must guarantee to operate the vessels
on the specified routes for a term of years and there is no reason to believe
that the buyers will violate the terms of their contracts. Furthermore, the
Shipping Board has announced its intention of protecting the private lines
from rate cutting competition by foreign lines. If foreign competitors
start rate wars with the object of putting the new private American lines
out of business the Shipping Board will take back the lines sold and operate
them until Congress considers the question of protecting American ships.
There is thus small likelihood of any of the young American companies
being driven off the sea by unfair foreign competition. The fears of the
Middle West Foreign Trade Committee and others are really groundless,
and the Shipping Board should be commended rather than condemned for
its present ship sales policy. The Board has no alternative but to sell its
ships. Its hand is being forced by the administration's economy program,
Its appropriation is being cut this year to a point where it cannot possibly
operate all its vessels and keep them within the appropriation. The board
is selling its ships for economy's sake.
To President Palmer of the Fleet Corporation is due the credit for placing
the government's shipping interests on a more business-like basis. When
he assumed office nearly two years ago he began to reduce expenses, and he
has carried on this work ever since with amazing success. He has cut down
the personnel, he has instituted more satisfactory and cheaper methods of
financing, he has devised ways and means whereby the managing agents
could show better voyage results, and he has reorganized the staff of the
Fleet Corporation in this country and abroad until today the organization
is more efficient than ever it has been. It was he who worked out and car-
ried into effect the scheme for consolidating the government's services
whereby the number of operators and active ships could be reduced without
impairing any of the services or the government's interests. Through Ad-
miral Palmer's clever handling of the Fleet Corporation and the managing
operators the Shipping Board will come very near living within its appro-
priation of $24,000,000 this year, which will be a saving of approximately
$10,000,000. Everyone will agree that this was no mean undertaking and
that high praise is due Admiral Palmer for these excellent results. In the
face of these achievements, certain parties are attacking Admiral Palmer
and questioning his motives. The Chamber of Commerce of Portland,
Oregon, has a foreign-trade committee whose chairman is Frank L. Shull.
According to press reports this Mr. Shull addressed the members of the
chamber a few days ago and took occasion to assail Admiral Palmer. The
dispatches state that Mr. Shull charged that Admiral Palmer is dominated
by British shipping interests who are attempting to throttle America's new
steamship lines and concentrate all the trade in the large ports controlled
by their organizations. Being in a public position, it is natural that Presi-
dent Palmer should be open to criticism, but such an attack as this is as
unfair and as unsportsmanlike as it is unwarranted. The results of Ad-
miral Palmer's stewardship speak for themselves. He stepped into the
Fleet Corporation affairs at a critical time and has skillfully steered the
government's shipping affairs from the rocks of disaster. He has accom-
plished more in solving the government's shipping problems than any of his
predecessors, and the future operation and care of the government's ships
can be safely left in his hands. He has the confidence of American shipping
A


  p. 2010 (#954)                      #

2010
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
men, who know something of the problems he has had to face and of the
masterly way in which he has solved them, and that is all that matters.
The government needs Admiral Palmer's services now more than ever
before. The Budget Bureau has served notice on the Shipping Board that
the estimates for the next fiscal year for the operation of the government's
ships must be cut to $15,000,000. This is a drastic reduction and fears are
expressed that the board cannot get along with this small appropriation.
The commissioners estimate that $22,000,000 will be required, but Admiral
Palmer is convinced that the present number of ships can be kept in opera-
tion on an appropriation of $18,000,000. If the president of the Fleet Cor-
poration can cut down expenses so that he can come within $3,000,000 of
the appropriation then his real worth will be proved. Chairman O'Connor
of the Shipping Board has expressed the opinion that if the appropriation
is cut to $15,000,000 it will be found necessary to tie up the Leviathan and
the other vessels operated by the United States Lines. Such action would
be disastrous and would greatly undermine America's prestige on the ocean
and should be avoided at all costs. Therefore, if Admiral Palmer can save
the situation and prevent the withdrawal of any vessels on an appropriation
of $18,000,000 he should be given a free hand, Admiral Palmer expects to
dispose of several more of the government's services, and by so doing and
eliminating the losses to the government on these services he will be able
to keep the Fleet Corporation's expenses within the reduced appropriation.
The Leviathan must not be tied up, and rather than resort to such a meas-
ure, the Shipping Board will surely give Admiral Palmer the opportunity
to carry into effect his plans for reducing expenses.
Motor Passenger Liners
The Marine Engineer and Motor Ship Builder, August, 1925.---Another
milestone in the history of the motorship was reached on Tuesday, July 2,
when Harland and Wolff, Ltd., launched from their Belfast yard the large
passenger and mail liner Asturias, which is intended for the Southampton-
South America service of the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company. This
vessel, when completed early next year, will have the distinction of being
the first British motorship employed on the South American service, and
she will also be at the time of her completion the largest vessel in the service
of her owners. In all probability the honor of being the first motorship to
trade across the Atlantic will be divided equally between the Asturias and
the Gripsholm, at present completing at the Walker Shipyard of Sir W. G.
Armstrong, Whitworth and Company, for the Swedish-America Line,
Gothenburg, but in both cases the type of propelling machinery is the same
although the more powerful units are fitted in the Asturias. The only large
passenger and mail liner at present on service is the trans-Pacific Aorangi
of 18,500 tons gross, and she is propelled by single-acting engines of two-
stroke cycle type driving four lines of shafting. Both the Gripsholm and
the Asturias will be twin-screw vessels, and their propelling machinery will
be of Burmeister and Wain four-stroke cycle double-acting type.
For many years it was considered not only by antagonists of the internal-
combustion engines, but also by some of its strongest protagonists, that the
production of a practical double-acting Diesel engine was a very difficult
feat to accomplish, if not an impossibility, and it reflects great credit on
both designers and constructors of these engines that practical sea-going
units have now been evolved. Antagonists of the double-acting Diesel engine
said that it would be impossible to evolve an engine which would operate
satisfactorily on the under side of the cylinder and that great trouble would
be experienced owing to the fact that the piston rod would necessarily pierce
the bottom cylinder cover. Some experimenters set out to overcome this


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Professional Notes
difficulty by constructing a forked connecting rod, so that the under side of
piston, to all intents and purposes, operated exactly the same as the top
side of the piston. These experimenters went further than the experimental
stage and produced an extremely successful practical working engine. Other
people, among whom were Burmeister and Wain and their licensees, decided
that it was perfectly reasonable and possible to get an engine to work with
the piston rod piercing the bottom cylinder cover, and the difficulties of
combustion space were overcome by arranging what is virtually a space
extraneous to the cylinder itself, in which all the valves work. That is,
broadly, the principle upon which the Burmeister and Wain four-stroke cycle
double-acting engine works. It cannot be criticized on the score of compli-
cation, since there is only one camshaft at mid-cylinder height, and that is
fitted with a double set of cams (i.e., two groups, one for top and one for
bottom) which drive, through push rods, the valve levers for top and bot-
tom. Reversal is carried out in the ordinary way by shifting the camshaft
in a fore-and-aft direction. The Gripsholm is fitted with two sets of six-
cylinder double-acting engines of this type, but the Asturias has two sets of
eight-cylinder engines, and when completed she will be the highest-powered
twin-screw motorship afloat, her engines developing collectively a maximum
of about 20,000 i.h.p. In conjunction with this main machinery installation.
electric auxiliaries are to be fitted, and with the exception of a small boiler
which is intended to drive a small emergency air compressor and to generate
steam for cooking purposes, and so forth, there will be no steam in the
ship at all.
The South American trade is considered one of particular suitability for
motorship operation, and the Hamburg-South American Line, for example,
already maintains a passenger and cargo service from Hamburg to the
River Plate, with the Monte Sormiento and Monte Olivia, two well-equipped
vessels, which are propelled by Diesel machinery of approximately 7,000
i.h.p.; the former, it is interesting to recall, is driven by trunk piston engines
operating two screws through mechanical reduction gearing. The Asturias
is one of a series of large motor liners building at Belfast for the Royal
Mail Steam Packet Company, and the Union-Castle Line, and in the minds
of many far-thinking people these vessels appear to usher in a definitely
new era in marine engineering. Whether this is an exaggeration remains
to be seen, but the construction and completion of these vessels certainly does
point to the fact that the double-acting Diesel engine is rapidly coming into
its own. Whether all large ships of the future will be propelled by double-
acting Diesel engines of four-stroke cycle type is a matter which at the
present it is rather difficult to say. There are many enthusiasts for the two-
stroke Diesel engine of this type, and certainly it has a great number of
advantages, but what the shipowner has to consider is reliability and first
cost, and the engine which is definitely more reliable, and, with that relia-
bility, cheaper than others, is the one which in the long run will unques-
tionably prove the favorite.
The Motor-driven Mail and Passenger Ship "Asturias"
The Shipbuilder, August, 1925.—The launch of the Royal Mail Steam
Packet Company's twin-screw motorship Asturias from the East Yard of
Messrs. Harland and Wolff, Ltd., Belfast, on July 7, was an event of out-
standing importance in the annals of British shipbuilding and marine engi-
neering, as the vessel is the largest and most powerful motorship afloat, and
she will also be one of the first propelled by double-acting oil engines to
take up her regular service.


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Intended for the South American trade of her owners, the ship complies
with all the requirements of the Board of Trade and Spanish laws. The
leading particulars are as follows:
Length B.P.
655ft. Sin.
Breadth moulded ......
78ft. oin.
Depth moulded .........
45ft. oin.
Gross tonnage, about ....
22,000
Passengers (1st, 2nd and 3rd) and crew.
1,700
Indicated horse-power ..
20,000
The vessel has a straight stem and cruiser stern, with lofty deck erec-
tions amidships. Eleven watertight bulkheads divide the hull into twelve
main compartments. The double bottom is continuous fore and aft, and is
arranged for the carriage of fresh water or water ballast.
The first-class main staircase forward, of the double spiral type, extends
through six decks, and from the orlop deck to the top of the skylight is
about 60 ft. in height. Communicating with the swimming bath on the
orlop deck, it mounts deck by deck to the social hall on E deck, passing
en route the entrance to the dining saloon on A deck, the lounge entrance
on B deck (at which level embarkation and disembarkation take place), and
C deck entrance, where a shop is installed. Upon the next level, D deck,
is situated the inquiry bureau. A similar staircase at the after end of the
accommodation gives access to other apartments, such as the smoking room,
winter garden, children's playroom, etc.
The first-class dining saloon, in the style of the French Empire, is 94 ft.
long by 74 ft. broad, and is planned with a central hall 60 ft. by 40 ft by
17 ft. high, occupying two decks in height, while the remainder is one deck
high. Seating accommodation is arranged for 412 passengers at tables for
numbers varying from two to twelve.
The main portion of the social hall, which is of Georgian character, rises
to a height of about 19 ft. At the forward end a stage has been introduced
for theatrical and other entertainments, and the whole of the floor is of
polished oak parquet to facilitate dancing.
The lounge is based on the state apartments at Houghton House, Nor.
folk, in Kent's middle period.
The reading and writing room is painted white in the style of the Robert
Adam's work at Harewood, Yorkshire.
The first-class smoking room, in the William and Mary period, is pan-
elled throughout in cedarwood after the rooms at Belton House, Lincoln-
shire.
The walls of the winter garden, on the top deck, are in alternate hori-
zontal bands of red and white in stone finish in the Spanish Moresque style
of Cordova.
The swimming bath is in the Pompeian style, with marble and tile floors
and red majolica columns round the bath. It is planned in two heights,
the upper one with dressing boxes on a broad balcony. The bath pond is
29 ft. long by 17 ft. broad and 8 ft. deep.
The children's room, on F deck, is laid out on the lines of a Kate Green-
away cottage and garden.
There are four main 400-kw. Diesel-driven generators; also one of
75 kw., placed above the margin line, for use at any time the main genera-
tors are out of action. There are some 4,000 lights in all distributed
throughout the vessel. A feature of the ship is the ample ventilation, there
being over fifty large fans for delivering cold air to the accommodation, in
addition to which there are over 500 cabin and ceiling fans throughout the
staterooms and public rooms. The heating throughout is electric, there


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Professional Notes
being some 500 heaters in the accommodation. Electricity is also employed
in the galley ranges, hospitals and barbers' shops.
The whole of the auxiliary machinery in the engine room is electrically
driven, including three maneuvering compressors each of 180 b.h.p. In addi-
tion to these, the refrigerating plant consists of two compressors, each
driven by a 110-b.h.p. motor, together with electrically-driven circulating
pumps and fans in connection therewith.
The pumps for supplying the hydraulic cranes are also placed in the
machinery space, and are each of 110 h.p.
On the decks the electrical equipment includes a 135-h.p. warping winch,
two 150-h.p. capstans, and a 136-h.p. windlass, together with the motors for
the electric-hydraulic steering gear.
Seven electrically-operated lifts and hoists are installed, as well as a
complete system of bells and telephones.
The propelling machinery, constructed by the shipbuilders at Belfast, con-
sists of two Harland B. & W. eight-cylinder, four-stroke cycle, double-
acting Diesel engines, which are the highest powered units yet constructed
for marine propulsion, each engine being capable of developing 10,000 i.h.p.
at 115 r.p.m. The cylinders have each a bore of 33 in, and a piston stroke
of 59 in.
Compressed air for fuel injection is provided from three-stage air com-
pressors, mounted in tandem at the fore end of each engine and driven off
an extension of the crankshaft. The engines have forced lubrication
throughout, and the cylinder jackets are cooled with fresh water, oil being
used for piston-cooling.
Maneuvering air at 25 atmospheres is stored in six steel reservoirs, the
latter being charged by three-stage electrically-driven air compressors.
As stated in the description of the electrical equipment, four 400-kw.
electric-generating sets are fitted, each driven by a four-cylinder, four-
stroke cycle, single-acting Diesel engine.
All the engine-room auxiliaries are driven by independent electric motors,
but for emergency use a small steam-driven compressor is fitted.
Two oil-fired vertical boilers are installed for generating steam for cook-
ing purposes, and so forth.
It is interesting to add that a sister ship of the Asturias, namely the
Alcantara, is being built for the Royal Mail Steam Packet Company; while
on an adjoining berth there is also under construction a motor liner of
similar dimensions, named the Carnarvon Castle, for the Union-Castle Mail
Steamship Company, Ltd.
The Flettner Rudder of the Motorship “Sorrento”
The Shipbuilder, August, 1925.—The single-screw motorship, Sorrento,
which is equipped with a Flettner rudder of the underhung type, as illus-
trated, has recently undergone satisfactory steering trials on the River Elbe.
This vessel, which has a deadweight carrying capacity of about 2,700 tons
and a horsepower of about 1,050, has been built to the order of the Ham-
burg shipowners, Rob. M. Sloman, Jr., and Company, for the Mediterranean
service.
According to a report signed by the owner's representatives on the trials,
the steering proved a complete success, it being possible for one man to hold
the vessel on its course quite comfortably by hand. In altering course, the
rudder responded in a very remarkable manner, without any unnecessary
effort being exerted on the hand steering wheel. Turning circles were made
both to port and starboard, and were estimated to have a diameter of only
twice the length of the ship. Furthermore, while steaming down the river
at full speed, the helm was put hard over, so as to bring the ship practically
across the stream. The ship was immediately brought back on her course


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U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
without in any way reducing the speed. These difficult maneuvers convinced
everyone on board as to the steering efficiency possible with the Flettner
rudder.
The report draws special attention to the tests carried out at slow speeds,
particularly in regard to the steering of the vessel after shutting down the
engines. While entering Hamburg with the tide, or, in other words, with
the current running in the same direction as the ship, and notwithstanding

THE FLETTNER RUDDER OF THE MOTORSHIP "SORRENTO,"
SEEN FROM STARBOARD
the fact that the wind was adverse, the vessel was still capable of being
steered for seven minutes after the engines had stopped; that is to say,
going absolutely dead slow. Furthermore, it was possible to bring the ship
right into the harbor and up to the quayside without any assistance from
tugs.
The Flettner rudder control gear in the wheelhouse, the report continues,
was absolutely noiseless and gave entire satisfaction.


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Professional Notes
MISCELLANEOUS
Combat Methods of the Japanese
By Colonel C. E. Kilbourne, C. A. C., The Coast Artillery Journal,
August, 1925.—To those who would appreciate the basic causes of the
success or the failure of a campaign no royal road can be pointed out. The
study of a nation's doctrines of war, of her field service and drill regula-
tions is valuable but not conclusive. If accepted at face value these may
lead to erroneous conclusions, that, in turn might lead to erroneous action
on the battlefield. Two nations may announce the offensive, the objective,
and cooperation as being the principles most important to insure success of
an engagement, but their interpretation of these terms may be quite differ-
ent. Again, two nations may state that the infantry is the primary arm, one
expecting to attack with the bayonet under cover of such artillery support
as may be obtainable, the other expecting to shatter the enemy with
artillery fire, using the infantry to mop up and occupy the position so gained.
The relation between distinctive combat methods and announced doctrines
can be learned only by a detailed study of campaigns in which the student
is willing to examine all orders and decisions and to trace the effect of these
down to the smallest unit. This will frequently indicate the persistence of
certain methods and principles in spite of character of terrain, of develop-
ment in mechanical means of warfare and of enemy reaction. It is on such
a detailed study that the following notes on the Japanese army are based.
Doubtless selected instances may appear to contradict conclusions drawn,
but it is believed the impressions conveyed are, on the whole, reliable.
As to organization we know the larger features but are in doubt as to
details. The Japanese endeavor to keep their organization secret and ques-
tions are met with polite evasion. The following, therefore, is not to be
taken as absolutely accurate.
The Japanese discard the army corps, building the field army direct from
divisions. As with us, the G. H. Q. directs the armies, and, in the Russo-
Japanese War, continued this direction successfully with a number of armies
our present doctrine would lead us to believe so great as to demand the
formation of army groups. Their average of three divisions to an army
gives the field army approximately the numerical strength of our typical
army corps, but it is, in conception, and by the permanent assignment of
army troops, essentially an echelon for independent operations.
The Japanese division differs from that of any other great power. Re-
taining the square formation—two brigades each of two regiments—for the
infantry, their artillery consists of a single regiment of three battalions. In
rifle (bayonet) power it is the strongest of all; in artillery and automatic
fire the weakest. A regiment of cavalry, of about the strength of our
squadron, is assigned. There is no organic air service. The division is
complete as to engineers, communication troops and trains. Numerically
it is something less than 85 per cent of our war strength division.
During the Russo-Japanese War independent infantry brigades, some of
infantry only, others "reinforced,” were used as army troops and G. H. Q.
reserves. They were assigned to armies and withdrawn in accordance with
the mission and situation, just as we assign and withdraw G. H. Q. artillery.
They were used to enable army commanders to hold out a cohesive reserve
and without necessity for disrupting any division. They could replace a
brigade that had been exceptionally heavily engaged thus enabling the divi-
sion to continue its effort. They were used on missions not demanding a
complete division, and could make progress (living mainly on the country)
in terrain where supply difficulties would tend to immobilize a complete
division. For flank protection, for lines of communication, and for many
duties requiring the detachment of small forces they saved calls on the
divisions, leaving these, and the armies of which they were component parts
undisturbed as to normal organization and combat capacity.


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U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
They were not "provisional" brigades, but were duly organized from the
beginning with permanent commanders and staffs. They had a distinct
organization esprit; many will live in history.
Apparently these units have disappeared. They were known as "kobi"
brigades, being organized from kobi (first reserve) troops and at present
we hear only of "kobi" divisions. The writer believes that independent
infantry brigades will reappear as G. H. Q. reserves in another war. They
proved their value too conclusively to have been discarded. Sustaining this
belief is the fact that, in Japanese maneuvers are found independent infantry
units (regiments) in reserve; also it has been noted, in conversation with
Japanese officers, that there is a distinct reaction when the operations of
kobi brigades is discussed.
A consideration of the foregoing indicates that the Japanese are not
imitators of the organization of any European nation, just as a study of
their operations will show they are far from following blindly the doctrines
and methods of any nation in campaign and combat. There seems no doubt
that they have studied all and given all due weight, but that organization,
strategy and tactics are distinctly their own.
Comment is made from time to time that the Japanese are conservative
and slow to change. Their history is contradictory in this. Certainly no
nation stood still for so long a period as did Japan under the Shogunate of
the Tokugawas. On the other hand they changed from a feudal to a modern
state in a generation, their military system keeping pace. They have been
criticized for "failing to profit by the lessons of the World War," the rela-
tively small artillery strength, the small percentage of automatic weapons
and the practical absence of motor transport being cited. But, their atten-
tion to air development and the submarine, considered in connection with
their past record for careful planning leads to the logical conclusion that
they have not only studied the World War but have applied the lessons to
be learned therefrom to their own problems and with the characteristics
of the area they wish to control prominently in mind. We should remember
that Grant sent the bulk of his army artillery to the base in the campaign
of 1864. He could not bring it into action nor supply it. It is probable that
Japan has designed her organization for a special theater, and to bring into
action the maximum force, all things considered, in that theater. Tables
of organization do not win battles.
As to leadership the number of armies controlled successfully from a
single headquarters direct has already been commented on. The success
of this control appears to have been due to the thorough understanding by
all commanders of the objective, to complete instruction of each in the mis-
sion of the others, to the maximum of personal consultation of commanders
during engagements, and to the use of cavalry for liaison purposes. Among
army commanders there was absolute loyalty to the objective, combined with
initiative. There are instances where commanders, anticipating the desires
of the supreme command, prepared the orders for the next movement of
their own troops, and, when the directive was received from General Head-
quarters, were able to issue the orders so prepared with little or no altera-
tion.
Cooperation among commanders was a matter of course. We find army
commanders, without orders or request, voluntarily detaching a brigade to
assist another army, possibly thirty miles away. We find regimental com-
manders (themselves engaged) sending a battalion to the aid of another
unit they believed more heavily pressed. Again and again, when informa-
tion was received that a certain organization had been repulsed or was being
counter-attacked, we find contiguous units attacking on their own initiative,
or reserves deflected from a local mission to some operation that would tend
to relieve the pressure on the threatened unit.
Confidence in commanders seemed to be ingrained, due probably to thor-
ough training and to the loyalty referred to. We are taught that, in a field


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Professional Notes
order, no alternative is admissible; in the Japanese orders directives as
"will endeavor to capture," "will occupy - if possible," were habitually
to be found. It was assumed that commanders would do their utmost. As
a corollary we find commanders perfectly frank in expressing doubts of
success. Again and again division and brigade commanders reported that
they could not carry objectives assigned, and, occasionally, that they doubted
their ability to resist counter-attack-and this without apparent fear of
reproach or punishment. Higher commanders responded to such reports by
sending reserves if any were available, or by directing that ground gained
should be held to the last man, or that the attack must be continued at all
hazards. The writer has found record of only one general officer being
relieved from command; there was no Limoge or Blois.
Just as there appears to have been no fear of punishment in event of
failure, there seemed no thought of self-advancement and no jealousy. In
the Russo-Japanese War there were no indications of indecision, and none
of hasty, ill-thought-out action. Calm and deliberate planning, combined
with energetic execution seems to have been the rule, and an enormous
capacity for personal exertion, continued with practically no intervals for
sleep, was notable for division and brigade commanders.
Much has been written of the Japanese soldier, of his courage and en-
durance. Certainly the assaults at Port Arthur equal any in history for
daring and determination. The operations of the Twelfth Brigade, Twelfth
Division at the Sha-ho set a standard of endurance. This unit fought all
day October 11; assaulted and captured Sanchengtzu hills the night of the
eleventh-twelfth, carried the ridge to the north on the twelfth, crossing a
valley 600 yards broad in three rushes; were reorganized for another attack
when recalled for a new mission; marched ten miles through a heavy rain
storm the night of the twelfth-thirteenth; attacked a Russian force on the
hills guarding a pass the following morning making several unsuccessful
assaults; reformed to resist attack on the approach of reinforcements to the
Russians; took up the pursuit when the enemy began retiring on the four-
teenth; then marched eighteen miles over mountain trails to rejoin the divi-
sion on the fifteenth.
While the Japanese were pioneers in application of modern methods of
massed artillery fire, concealment and indirect fire, there were instances to
show that the same aggressive spirit shown by the infantry actuated also
officers and men of the artillery. Their artillery was outranged, but they
pushed it forward and generally succeeded in besting the superior artillery
of their opponents. The initiative of a junior officer in bringing his moun-
tain guns into an advanced position enfilading Gershelmann's line contributed
greatly to the success of Kuroki's first day's operations at Liao Yang.
On the other hand, there are plenty of instances of Japanese soldiers
being stopped by accurate fire, and a few of their failing to respond to their
officers' call for an advance; and, as the war progressed, the instances of
reckless daring in mass diminished. They are admirable soldiers, will
attack with zest and resist to the end ; they are cheerful under hardships;
they have great endurance. But, it is not believed that they differ from
soldiers of other races who have enthusiasm for the cause and confidence
in their leaders, and they have produced no army of higher spirit or greater
endurance than the American army that marched to the Rhine.
A picture has been drawn of skillful, aggressive and unselfish leadership
and of loyal response from the troops that is believed justified by the facts
of history. But, while these traits, combined with the absence of organiza-
tion and consistent leadership of their opponents, gave them an unbroken
series of victories in the last war, an analysis of their methods seems to
indicate that the same careful staff work and an equal fixity of purpose on
the other side might have reversed the results.
Oyama may have been influenced but certainly was not dominated by the
doctrines and maxims of other leaders. He did not hesitate to plan and


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U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
execute a strategic concentration upon the selected battlefield under condi-
tions that made it certain his plan would become known. His plan yielded
to the enemy the advantages of interior lines, with far better means of
supply and movement. By all rules his armies should have been beaten in
detail long before they could effect their concentration facing Liao Yang.
Not one of them but was immobilized from time to time by supply difficul-
ties, while the railroad and better roads left the Russians free to move.
In the larger engagements we find conclusive evidence of planning the
action in detail, and depending upon the success of each step contributory
to the final object. Instances multiplied where a perfectly logical reaction
on the part of the Russians would have forced a complete change of the
rather complicated plan and with grave danger of disaster.
The double envelopment has been condemned for the smaller force.
Oyama did not hesitate to use it, and it is to be seen also in some of the
independent operations of Kuroki.
All great leaders have stressed the importance of saving reserves until
the crisis of the action. We find, not only Oyama, but all of the subordinate
commanders committing reserves very early in an engagement, invariably
before the outcome could be foretold and frequently in the first contact of
the main forces. In all of the larger battles there were periods when the
Japanese had put in practically every unit, and in all (except the Sha-Ho)
they were over-extended at the same time, while the Russians still had large
(though rather disorganized) reserves of fresh troops.
We are told that the greatest effort is to be made in the decisive direction
and area—this maxim had, apparently, no weight with Oyama. At Liao
Yang and to a lesser degree at Mukden he concentrated his mass in a por-
tion of the field where no decision could be expected logically, where no
great result could come from success, depending upon comparatively small
forces to influence the retreat of the enemy; forces so distant as to be
almost beyond his immediate control.
On the other hand, he followed the maxim about adherence to a plan
once adopted. None of his subordinate commanders received contradictory
orders, none left idle. In his brief written orders, regardless of success or
failure in attaining the day's objectives, and regardless of what the enemy
might be attempting, the following phrase is generally to be found: “The
intentions of the Commander-in-Chief are unchanged."
Neither he, nor his army commanders, would ever yield the initiative.
Should the enemy develop great strength and aggressiveness in one portion
of the field, even though success might have serious results, the action was
always to expedite, and (if reserves were available) to strengthen the attack
elsewhere.
Oyama opened neither of his main offensive battles in the direction he
expected to obtain a decision. In both he developed an attack of sufficient
strength to appear serious on the opposite flank and continued it until it
was apparent that his opponent had committed many of his reserves. Then
came the decisive movement, a wide turning or a double envelopment, unless
he decided upon an intermediate stage consisting of a holding attack in the
center with light, extended forces. Both at Liao Yang and Mukden a well
planned counter-attack through the center would have separated the Japanese
forces and cut off supplies from at least one wing.
Only rarely was the Japanese attack as strong as it seemed; the enemy,
not unnaturally, could not credit the fact that, in the opening of a long
engagement, their enemy would commit practically all reserves to the line.
They could not believe that Kuroki (at Liao Yang) isolated on the north
of the Tait-zu, would extend four brigades over a ten-mile front in the
endeavor to outflank and threaten the retreat of superior forces then vigor-
ously counter-attacking him in a direction where failure to hold would cut
him off from hope of reinforcement. Almost invariably the Russians exag-


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Professional Notes
gerated the strength of the forces along the entire line, whereas the simplest
staff work should have shown them the true condition.
In the lesser battles the same strategic and tactical conception is to be
observed. In only one of the engagements (Tashihchiao) was a frontal
attack depended upon for a decision. In all others the frontal attack held
attention while a large portion, if not the bulk, of the forces were sent on
wide turning movements or (Motienling) a double envelopment. Even in
the smaller affairs (see Chiao-Tou) this method was habitual. A counter-
attack delivered from four to six hours after the first advance of the Jap-
anese would frequently have found only a small force in front and covering
the line of communications. The remaining forces were generally scattered
in small detachments with poor means of communication and such supplies
as could be packed over inferior trails.
Another noteworthy characteristic was the night movement and attack,
especially in terrain where artillery support could not be assured. The
night attack, also, almost invariably followed failure of the day assault,
provided success at that point was essential to the plan. Oyama's evening
orders frequently contained the directive "Such unit will endeavor to carry
- tonight." Had the Russians, after repelling a day attack, assembled
and disposed reserves to meet a night attack they would have saved many
a key point; and, in those cases where the night attack did not follow, had
they utilized the reserves so assembled for a determined advance the fol-
lowing morning they would have found, almost invariably, only a shell in
front; that the bulk of the forces that had attacked the day before had
been withdrawn for use elsewhere.
There is no doubt that this shell would have fought bitterly. It is to
be noted that when the Japanese infantry retired, they did so on a position
that was marked to be held, that where the position occupied was really
important they did not retire. One company held against a battalion at
Motienling, and, near Chiao-Tou, a single company fought against eight,
and, strengthened by the arrival of two more companies, fought for four
and a half hours until relieved. A larger example is that of the Twelfth
Brigade and Guard Kobi Brigade at the Sha-Ho, opposing the First and
Third Siberian Corps, reinforced by the cavalry of Rennenkampf and
Samsonoff. Frequently the Russians had the force to overwhelm them,
but lacked the staff to analyze their enemy's combat methods.
Considering the character of the terrain and the scarcity of telephone
communication, the liaison was remarkable. It is astonishing to see how
promptly Oyama gathered information of events, and how quickly reaction
in one portion of the line followed success, failure, or threatened reverse
in another. Doubtless another war will find far more extensive use of
electrical communications, and it may well be that the Japanese cavalry will
gain in prestige by those brilliant surprise actions we expect of that arm
in open warfare. But we should not criticize success, and the Japanese
cavalry did their full share in the success of these battles ; incidentally its
use tends to confirm the view that the Japanese are not tied down by pre-
vailing ideas; that they prepare what they need and use it as they deem
most advisable. As noted they still have a considerable cavalry detachment
with the division.
It has been frequently remarked that in no battle did the Japanese exploit
their success, that invariably the Russians made good their retirement, and
that only at Mukden was the retirement seriously threatened ; in brief, that
the Japanese were capable of any exertion up to the time the full fruits of
victory were to be gathered, then failed of the final effort. Our principle
of the objective-the destruction of the enemy armed forces—was not fol-
lowed out. The Clausewitz doctrine-that the army which inflicts the
greatest losses really wins regardless of who holds the battlefield and pro-
vided both are left intact to fight again—was equally discarded. The Jap-
anese were satisfied with actual mastery of the battlefield.


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History may show a possible explanation of this. There is no recorded
instance of a Japanese army losing a battle to a foreign enemy. Minor
reverses, yes, as witness the capture of Tsusima by the Koreans; the aban-
donment of a campaign, yes, as witness the many failures to hold Korea;
yielding the fruits of victory, yes, as witness the retirement from Port
Arthur and the Liao Tung after the Chino-Japanese War, on demand of
the European powers; but a pitched battle of opposing forces-never. Jap-
anese troops have fled in panic, but it was in civil wars when their opponents
were also Japanese.
This tradition of invincibility when facing a foreign foe may be the
explanation of the failure of the Japanese to exploit their victories in the
Russo-Japanese War. It would be a very unusual man who would risk
being the first soldier of his race to lose a battle to a foreign army. Only
in some of the smaller engagements were the Russians decisively defeated ;
in most of the battles they retired from the field when there was still plenty
of fight left in the men. If cornered, they might turn the tables; once they
were definitely known to be retiring they were permitted to do so.
In this record of unbroken victories there is an element of weakness as
well as of strength. While it undoubtedly enhances the morale of all ranks,
it may explain the grave risks taken and the heavy losses accepted, some-
times without justification, considering the benefits, in order to ensure the
actual occupation of the disputed field, and it may explain, as intimated
above, why the final effort was not made. The plea of exhaustion cannot
be accepted; all Japanese units had not made such efforts as that described
for Matsunaga's brigade at the Sha-Ho. There was some other reason.
It may be that Oyama realized that he could not afford to lose a battle
on account of the effect upon Japanese prestige. Japan depended upon loans
to finance the war. Continuous success meant continued confidence, while a
reverse might tighten the purse strings of Europe. This might have been
the reason for resting satisfied with the appearance of victory rather than
risking all to attain the reality; all well knowing that no complete analysis
could be made till after the war. The history of the Japanese move for
peace, and the reasons that government took the initiative in seeking peace,
tend to confirm this view. To have followed the directive from the home-
land, rather than to follow his own instincts as a general, is not beyond
what is known of Oyama's character and that of his army commanders.
To sum up:
The Japanese infantryman is an ardent fighter with preference for the
bayonet. He is capable of prolonged exertion, of extremely long charges
and he will not yield ground he is ordered to hold;
The artillery is well trained and will take great risks to support the
infantry;
The cavalry does not attempt the role we deem basic-its most valuable
function is contact and liaison ;
The organization is built to enable the maximum strength, all things con-
sidered, to be developed in a terrain of inferior communications.
Their leaders are skillful, tireless, calm, and daring. Personal ambition
seems lost in devotion to the general success;
Night movement and night combat are habitual;
There is a singular uniformity of maneuver, and of reaction in case of
success or failure;
There is a tendency to complicated plans capable of disruption if oppo-
nents combine energetic leadership with skillful staff work;
There is great determination in adhering to a plan and thorough mutual
confidence among leaders;
They will not yield the initiative regardless of danger at critical points;
Small reserves and early commitment of these is the rule;


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They will risk anything, will drive their men to the limit and accept any
losses rather than yield a battlefield; but will take no chance of forcing a
counter-attack once the enemy definitely breaks off action and retires;
They are careful and analytical students of the doctrines, methods, or-
ganization and equipment of others, but accept the use only those that seem
best fitted to their own problems.
Australia's Apprehensions
By Sir Herbert Russell, The Naval and Military Record, 29 July, 1925.-
we regarded the German Navy before the Great War. She thinks it is the
one real menace to the peace of the Pacific, and that she herself is directly
concerned in the designs which form the guiding policy of Japanese sea
power. It is true to say that if there were no Japanese Navy there would
be no visible possibility of a disturbance of the peace of the Pacific. We
should continue to maintain light cruiser squadrons in the Far East, and
the "hundred per cent" American Navy mght roam about the South Seas
and proclaim the hegemony of them as much as it pleased without the least
risk of any other nation troubling itself in the least. Australia would feel
that her “All White" policy was not likely to prove a source of serious
trouble, and that blessed phrase "the Yellow Peril” would never have been
born.
But, since there is a very big and very efficient Japanese Navy, and since
both this country and the United States are giving increased attention to
the Pacific as a naval zone, it is rather interesting to review the assumptions
upon whch is based the conclusion that war is inevitable, sooner or later.
War in this age can only spring from very definite causes, and when these
causes are clearly examined and understood we are in a position to consider
whether it may not be possible to compose them without recourse to armed
force at all.
The policy which the United States and Australia are pursuing seems to
be a policy which is bound to result in war with Japan. It is a policy of
the exclusion of the Asiatic. I do not propose to discuss the wisdom or the
justification of this policy: I simply take it as a clearly established principle.
That national sentiment in Japan should be very resentful of this attitude
is intelligible enough, but sentiment alone is not going to form a casus belli.
A nation, like an individual, may be deeply annoyed in being told by an
erstwhile friend to clear out and keep to herself, but she is not going to kick,
scratch, and bite simply for the sake of compelling acquaintanceship. Japan
would much prefer to turn her back with quiet dignity and return to that
long seclusion from which, by the irony of fate, the United States first
forced her, but she has reached-indeed, has passed-a stage of national
development when this is quite impossible. Necessity is forcing her into an
attitude distasteful to her temperament. Let me give some figures which
will explain the real seriousness of the outlook if the United States and
Australia persist in their present door-closing policy-and they certainly
will persist.
The Japanese Empire has an area of 148,756 square miles and a popula-
tion of 70,000,000. This gives 356 people to the square mile. China has an
area of 1,896,500 square miles, and a population of 428,000,000, giving 225
people to the square mile. Australia has an area of 2,974,581 square miles
and a population of 5,500,000, which gives it 1.8 people to the square mile.
New Zealand, with its population of 1,239,000, shows 10.8 people to the
square mile. Japan is at the bursting point of self-containment. She looks
west, toward China, and the United States exclaims “hands off! You
mustn't go there and spoil our markets !” She looks south toward Austra-
lia, which cries out, "Begone! We will have none of you !” She looks
east, toward California, and sees the gate banged in her face—and so she


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polishes her weapons and says that since her honorable race must have
standing room on the face of the earth she must very soon take by force
that which is denied to her by what the white races choose to call destiny.
Here is the whole gist of the Pacific menace. The needs of her people is
Japan's plea; she does not want territorial expansion for the sake of ag-
grandizement, but for housing accommodation. I believe that this question
is better and more sympathetically understood in England than in any other
country; hence, we do not pay very much heed to hair-curling prophecies
about the Yellow Peril. We are developing Singapore because we realize
that it is quite possible the United States may force a conflict with Japan,
or, worse still, Australia may challenge attack. In the one case we should
have to protect our Empire interests; in the other, we should immediately
declare war. But, Great Britain does not want to go to war with Japan,
whom she has always liked, and therefore does not contemplate the prospect
seriously, and because I believe it equally true that Japan does not want
to go to war with Great Britain, she will not attack Australia if she can
possibly get breathing space somewhere or anywhere without being shot at.
I confess that the growing tendency of the United States to regard
China as a new Monroe parish seems to me to hold the most disquieting
possibilities. Japan does not seriously dispute that the Australians have a
right to Australia. But she is prepared to very seriously dispute that the
Americans have any right to China. She is in an extraordinary favorable
strategical position for entering upon a naval war against the United
States-on her own terms. Manila and Guam she would naturally seize
as a preliminary step, and American expert opinion is pretty unanimous
that this would be inevitable. The Inland Sea would be her Scapa Flow, and
the long string of "mandate" islands her intermediate and submarine bases.
Singapore would be a very nasty thorn in the side, but then Singapore is
British, and not American.
The strategic position of Japan in relation to Australia is still more ad-
vantageous, and probably it is rather from realization of this fact than from
any real misgiving as to Japanese intentions that Australia is rendered so
uneasy. Relatively speaking, Japan did remarkably well out of the Great
War, and she did quite well out of the Washington Conference. She played
her rôle faithfully as an ally, but that rôle did not impose any great degree
of sacrifice. Her reward was definite, and, in a naval sense, very sub-
stantial indeed. Germany perfectly well knew the strategical value of the
islands which Japan has now annexed, and if they were of strategical value
to Germany, how infinitely more so to Japan? As the suzerain of the
Marshall, the Caroline, and the Ladrone Islands, Japan has advanced very
near to Australia.
I do not like the Japanese Treaty with Soviet Russia. She has been
largely driven into it by the sense of isolation which followed upon the
abrogation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, chiefly at the behest of America.
It recalls the prediction of Sun Yat-sen, made at Canton, in January, 1924.
that: “Within a decade China, Japan, India, Russia, and Germany will
join hands against those who are now victorious in the world. .... This
alliance is already in the making.” I think we may eliminate Germany
from this sketchy forecast, and the idea of China allying herself with a
country which is seeking to peacefully absorb her is rather novel. But, the
compact with Russia is a fait accompli, and would prove a tremendous asset
to Japan in the event of a Pacific War.
Let us look the situation fairly and squarely in the face. Not today nor
tomorrow, but in the very near future, Japan must have more elbow room
on the face of the earth. She casts a languishing eye on the wide vacant
spaces of Australia, but the forces against her are too great, and she
knows she cannot establish herself in Australia. She looks toward Man-
churia, and sees no reason why she should not establish herself there. The
United States declares that there is a reason: that it will not permit


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Manchuria to become another Korea Japan is not yet articulate in her
attitude toward this doctrine, but a day may come-will come—when she
will tell the United States that she has quite as much right to exploit
Manchuria as the United States has to try and keep her out of Manchuria,
and probably just a little more so. Then the crisis will be upon us, and
the peace of the Pacific will tremble in the balance.
Great Britain will use her utmost endeavors to avert a rupture, but it is
rather difficult to see just what she can do. Japan will be inexorable in her
necessitous demands. The imperiousness of the United States will brook of
no intervention, but whether she will be quite as ready to fight as she is to
talk about fighting must remain to be seen. Australia will be wholly on
the side of the United States, and this will seriously complicate the situation
so far as Great Britain is concerned.
We are still in the "calm and dispassionate" stage. Let us look at the
whole problem calmly and dispassionately. Let us realize that Japan is
building submarines and cruisers and generally preparing for war not be-
cause she wants war, but because she foresees herself being denied room
for expansion in the world. We cannot keep a proud, resolute, and
courageous nation of 70,000,000 inhabitants pent up within its own straining
fence even if we want to. Surely, the job is one for diplomacy rather than
for war. I am not a holder of Chinese securities, therefore I have no
arrier pensé when I say that since China is manifestly incapable of running
herself, let Japan go there on the understanding of equal commercial
rights to all nations. She will go there ultimately in any case, even if it
be over the sunken hulls of a vast armada and the dead bodies of invad-
ing armies.
Seven “Danger Spots" Still Disturb World
International Experts at the Williamstown Institute of Politics Describe
Leading Territorial and Economic Points of Dispute That Cause Great
Armaments and the Fear of War in Europe, Asia and America, By Russell
Porter, New York Times, 9 August, 1925.-Williamstown, Massachusetts.-
Despite the peace treaties, the League of Nations, the Washington Con-
ference, the Dawes plan and all the organized movements for peace and for
the outlawry of war, the world is still upset by war talk, preparations for
war and actual hostilities. This is evident to any one who reads the dis-
patches from China, Morocco and certain parts of Europe.
It is brought home with special force to those who have followed the
discussions in the first two weeks of the Institute of Politics, that annual
clearing-house of international affairs now meeting in the Berkshires. From
all parts of the globe experts have come to explain the problems of peace
and war that threaten the happiness and prosperity of mankind. A sum-
mary of the lectures, open conferences and round-table talks already held at
Williamstown shows that a great many of these problems still remain to be
solved that there are numerous "danger spots” on the earth's surface and
no lack of "danger ideas" among the peoples of the world.
Lest the review of these discussions seem alarmist in tone and give the
false impression that the world is going to the dogs, it should be made
clear at the beginning that the prevailing opinion among the leaders at the
institute is that the economic and political conditions of the world as
a whole have shown much progress since the close of the war, especially
during the last year.
The Dawes plan and other constructive efforts to repair the damage
of the war are recognized steps in the right direction, but are seen as no
more than steps. It is realized that the general problem consists of a great
many individual problems, each one of which must be solved before the
final "Q. E. D.” can be written.
The greatest immediate source of danger to world peace is recognized as
the widespread feeling of insecurity which affects virtually all European


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nations in consequence of the general unrest and impoverishment caused by
the European war. Major General Sir Frederick Maurice, who was Chief
of Operations on the British General Staff in the war, put his finger
on it, in one of his round table discussions of "Limitation of Armaments,"
when he said that the great trouble with Europe was not militarism or
imperialism, but plain "funk."
"By the treaties of peace drastic limitation has been imposed upon the ex-
enemy countries." General Maurice said. "The German Army has been
reduced from 866,000 in 1913 to 100,000 in 1925, and after making all
allowances for loss of troops and population due to the war the reduction
of the armed forces maintained in time of peace in the ex-enemy countries
amounts to at least 760,000 men.
"One would expect, then, to find at least a corresponding reduction in
other countries; but, in fact, the total number of armed men in Europe today
is approximately the same as it was in 1913. It is commonly supposed that
this is largely due to the action of France, and talk about the enormous
French Army is common. The army of France is, of course, the most
powerful in the world today, but it has been very materially reduced as
compared to 1913. In 1913 the French Army numbered 760,000; in 1925 it
numbers 675,000. The 766,000 were all Frenchmen; today the number of
Frenchmen is only 435,000. There has been a large increase in the native
(colonial) army, but this has been largely due to the great increase in
French territory in North Africa and Syria. Recent events in Morocco is
one of the reasons for the increase in the native army.
“The fact of the reduction in the French Army and that quite recently
further portions of the Ruhr have been evacuated by French and Belgian
troops shows that the authorities in France do not consider the German
forces an immediate menace. They are looking toward the future and see
with anxiety that the German population is increasing, while their own
is stationary.
“The real cause of the failure to limit armaments in Europe as com-
pared with 1913 is due less to the attitude of France and Germany than to
the creation of a whole crop of new armies in the nations which have
been created as a result of the peace treaties. Poland, Rumania, Finland,
Yugoslavia and Czechoslavia all today have formidable armies. The reason
is that they see themselves surrounded by neighbors from whom territory has
been taken. They have in their own borders large minorities of other
nations, and they are obsessed with the sense of insecurity.
"It is the feeling of insecurity, perfectly natural in countries that have
seen their fields ravaged by war, which is today the main cause of the main-
tenance of armies in Europe, and it is because that is so that the statesmen
of Europe have agreed upon a formula for the approach to the problem of
world peace in which they designate security, arbitration, limitation of
armaments, placing the three steps toward the ultimate goal in that order.
In a conversation with the writer General Maurice pointed out that the
security pact now being negotiated would guarantee the eastern frontiers
of France and Belgium against another German invasion, but that it would
leave other problems unsolved. He said that Poland and the smaller
countries bordering on Russia would still insist upon the maintenance of
large armies because of the fear of invasion by the Red soldiers, although he
remarked that the Russian Army, while large, was poorly equipped and had
inadequate transportation facilities.
Overpopulation has been stressed here as another possible cause of
future international strife. According to Professor Edward M. East, Har-
vard authority on population problems, the world is facing a very serious
situation. In fifty years at most, he said, the populations of the great
agricultural countries in the temperate zone will have increased to such a


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size that these countries will have difficulty in feeding their own inhabitants,
let alone exporting food as they do at present. The United States is in-
cluded among these countries, as well as Canada, Australia, New Zealand
and Argentina.
“This is a serious situation," said Professor East, "for in the meantime
the rate of increase of population in Europe has been very great. During
most of the nineteenth century the nations of Western Europe have had an
excess of births over deaths of at least thirteen per 1,000 annually. The
result has been an immense number of people who must be fed on imported
food. During the war Sir Henry Rew, the English food controller, testified
that England produced only 40 per cent of the food necessary to support
her people. Little Belgium produces only 35 per cent of her food require-
ments, Holland about the same. Food must be supplied to support 35 per
cent of the population of Italy, 30 per cent of the population of France and
28 per cent of the population of Germany. In the remaining countries of
Central and Western Europe the import-export ledger just about balances.
"The problem boils down to this: Western Europe has 85,000,000 of
excess population which must be supported by overseas commerce, and the
political difficulties arise from trying to enlarge the commerce to meet these
requirements if the countries previously supplying the necessities of life
are less and less able and willing to do it. Conditions are not hopeless, by
any means, but if the statesmen of Europe have any vision whatsoever it is
hoped that they will see their problem in its true light instead of magnifying
the petty political differences among them into major questions.
"Russia will recover. Of this there is no doubt. But, Russia will recover
slowly. She will export food; but the chances are that she will never again
become the exporting nation that she was formerly. Her own population
in the pre-war days was increasing nearly as rapidly as that of Canada.
If the current governmental returns are accurate, the population has again
started on the upward trend. In a limited number of years, therefore, how
many no one can say, Russia also must be removed from the list of food
exporters. It is just this period of time, perhaps thirty years, perhaps fifty
years, which may be taken as a respite for Western Europe, a period during
which she must set her house in order.
“During this time she must remove her cancerous overgrowth of popu-
lation to her colonies. This will be a temporary relief. The cure, if she is
to have a cure for her present trouble, can come only when the population is
standardized at such a figure, through birth control, that the people of each
political unit are supported by the products of its soil. Other remedies are
merely sugar-coated pills whose virtues are largely imaginary."
Closely connected with the population problem is that of raw materials.
Professor Charles K. Leith, of the University of Wisconsin, a noted
geologist, who is conducting a round table on the relation of mineral re-
sources of world affairs, predicted that "it is certain that wars will result"
unless an intelligent solution is found for the problem of the control of
minerals by a comparatively few countries.
He pointed out that a few strong combinations dominated the entire
mineral resources of the world and that the United States and England
alone, by agreeing on the disposition of the minerals they control, could
determine the general course of the mineral industry of the world. About
90 per cent of the world's steel production, for example, is centered in
three places—the Lake Superior region in the United States, England and
the Ruhr, because in no other parts of the world are there sufficient deposits
of coal and iron ore to make a big steel industry profitable.
These fundamental problems of over-population and lack of raw materials,
as has been shown at the institute, are sometimes linked with political move-
ments such as extreme nationalism, imperialism and militarism. In the


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opinion of many students of international affairs, that is true of Italy, which
is regarded here as the most important "danger spot" in the world today.
Italy is densely overpopulated, has insufficient colonies in which to settle
her surplus inhabitants, has seen her emigration to the United States cut
off, lacks coal and other essential resources, and, according to General
Maurice, has the third largest standing army in Europe, only France and
Russia having larger armies.
Count Antonio Cippico, Italian Senator and Fascist, who delivered a
series of lectures here, has denied that Italy has any imperialist ambitions.
He has insisted that Mussolini and modern Italy desire nothing but the
peaceable solution of their problems. The solution he has suggested is that
the other nations supply Italy with colonies as an outlet for her excess
population, or allow Italians to settle in foreign countries without giving
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THE CHIEF INTERNATIONAL "DANGER SPOTS" ON THE WORLD MAP
As Described by Speakers at the Institute of Politics at Williamstown
1. Italy, overpopulated and without sufficient colonies to provide an out-
let for her surplus inhabitants.
2. The Dantzic corridor, with the related territorial question of Upper
Silesia, has aroused intense feeling in Germany and Poland.
3. Saloniki, in which the Serbs demand a larger free zone and control of
the connecting railway. The ramifications of this Greek-Serbian dispute
extend throughout the Balkans.
4. Bessarabia is a potential source of trouble between Russia and Ru-
mania.
5. Austria, which apparently desires to become a part of the German
Republic, a project that the peace treaties forbid and that Czecho-Slovakia
and France oppose.
6. China, where a pronounced sentiment of nationalism has resulted in
growing restlessness under foreign control of ports and customs.
7. Mexico's oil wealth, her backward state of economic development and
her difficulties with the United States over mineral ownership, make this
country an international problem.
up their Italian citizenship and without abandoning their political ties with
Italy. He has indignantly rejected the birth control suggestion for his
people.
Drawing a picture of Italy as "a prisoner in her own sea" (the Mediter-
ranean) because of English control of the Straits of Gibraltar and the
Suez Canal, the Fascist spokesman told the institute:
"In view of her geographical position, her almost complete lack of raw
materials and her ever-expanding population, Italy is today the gravest
problem of the Mediterranean. It is not imperialism or nationalistic egotism
which guides the acts and aspirations of the Italian Government and people.
It is a necessity, growing every day more urgent, to insure to the nation


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H
tranquillity in its political and economic life, freedom of movement, and
outlets suited to the needs of its ever-expanding population and industries.
By studying this problem in time, and in the light of present political reali-
ties, it may be possible to find a peaceful solution."
After Italy, the most serious European problem at present is the dispute
between Poland and Germany about Dantzic, the Dantzic corridor, and
Upper Silesia, according to Professor Bernadotte Schmitt of the University
of Chicago, who is conducting a round table on European political problems.
Professor Schmitt, who visited the various European "danger spots” re-
cently, said that the temper on both sides in the Dantzic corridor con-
troversy is rising, with the Poles insisting on the retention of the corridor
because it gives them direct access to the sea, and the Germans protesting
because it separates the main body of the German State from East Prussia.
As to Dantzic itself, the Poles maintain that Germany is putting every ob-
stacle in their way to prevent them from using it as a port, whereas the
Germans assert that the Poles are working to install a Polish garrison and
to make the city Polish.
The Upper Silesian trouble, according to Professor Schmitt, is caused by
German resentment at the award made by the League of Nations in 1921.
He said the Germans contend that the whole of Upper Silesia should have
been turned over to Germany, because she had an overwhelming majority in
the plebiscite, and that the division of the area between the two countries has
destroyed its economic unity, making it impossible for the industries de-
pending on Upper Silesian coal to compete with the Ruhr industries. In
addition, he said, there are repeated complaints of ill treatment of Germans
on the Polish side of the line, and of Poles on the German side, resulting
in the recent widespread expulsions.
Count Alexander Skrzynski, Foreign Minister of Poland, who spoke
twice before the institute, emphasized the dilemma of democratic Poland,
wedged between Bolshevist Russia and nationalist Germany, as the ex-
planation for her large standing army, the fourth largest in Europe.
The next most inflammable question after that of Poland, Professor
Schmitt went on, is that of the port of Saloniki on the Ægean Sea. The
Serbs demand a larger free zone in the port, as well as control of the
railway running to Saloniki, in the same way that the Poles control the
Dantzic corridor, and the Serbs are making acceptance of their demands
a condition of the renewal of the alliance between Greece and Yugoslavia.
As a result, negotiations for the renewal are deadlocked.
The Serbian-Greek quarrel has complicated the situation in Macedonia,
where the Serbs are trying to Serbianize the population, which is generally
regarded as predominantly Bulgaria. If the negotiations between Greece
and Yugoslavia break down completely, Professor Schmitt said, the Serbs
may be forced into a rapprochement with Bulgaria. This would strengthen
Bulgaria enough to insist on a territorial outlet on the Ægean, and might
bring about a dangerous situation in the Balkans.
Another sore spot in Eastern Europe, said Dr. Schmitt, is the Bessarabia
question between Russia and Rumania. He pointed out that if this dispute
should lead to an attack on Rumania by Russia, a general European war
might be entailed because of alliances. Poland, because of her alliance with
Rumania, would have to attack Russia. This might tempt Hungary and
Germany to attack Poland in order to regain Transylvania and the Dantzic
corridor respectively. Whether France would hold back Germany, and
Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia would hold back Hungary, he said, was a
question.
Professor Schmitt said that the agitation in Vienna for a union between
Germany and Austria was another potential source of trouble. Such a
union would be contrary to all the peace treaties, and Czechoslovakia is
firmly opposed to it, but the majority of Austrians probably would welcome


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it, he said. In the present state of affairs, he predicted, an attempt to carry
out the union would lead to instant action by Czechoslovakia, and probably
by France and Italy. The only way to get the idea out of Austrian minds, he
said, was to hasten the completion of the economic rehabilitation of Austria
under the supervision of the League.
“Finally," Dr. Schmitt added, "the question of minorities looms up danger-
ously across the entire belt of territory from the Baltic to the Ægean.
The whole eastern frontier of Poland is studded with minorities-Lithu-
anians, White Russians, Ukranians. There is the eternal German question in
Czechoslovakia. The Magyars complain of their treatment in Czecho-
slovakia, Rumania and Yugoslavia. The Bulgarians complain of the treat-
ment of the Macedonians by the Serbs and of the Bulgarians in Dobrudja by
the Rumanians.”
Problems of the Pacific are being discussed before the institute by Profes-
sor George H. Blakeslee, of Clark University, leader of the open con-
ference on the recent foreign policy of the United States, who recently re-
turned from the Institute of Pacific Relations at Honolulu.
"The first danger point in the Pacific," said Professor Blakeslee, “is
found in the rapid development of a strong, intelligent nationalism through-
out China. According to all accounts, this has increased very greatly, even
in the last few months, and is based upon a more conscious realization of the
extent to which China is held under foreign control, and an insistent de-
mand that this control shall be done away with. The Chinese resent the
limitation of their right to levy customs duties above 5 per cent, the
privileges of extra-territoriality enjoyed by foreign nations and the extreme
rights of foreign concessions, especially in Shanghai.
"Japanese and American goods cannot be taxed over 5 per cent in Chinese
ports, while Chinese goods are taxed in many instances from 30 to 60 per
cent in the ports of Japan and the United States. As to extra-territoriality,
a number of states have already given up this privilege, including Russia,
Germany and Austria, and a number of other states have never enjoyed
it, including the new states of Europe and many of the Latin-American
states. With respect to foreign settlements, the Chinese are most resent-
ful of the situation in Shanghai, where there is a population of 1,000,000
Chinese who pay 75 per cent of the taxes and have no part whatever in the
municipal government.
"For these reasons China is getting to the boiling point and is in danger
of blowing off the lid. If nothing is done by the strong treaty powers to
meet the situation, the immediate result will be to aid Russia in her effort
to get more complete control of China. There is no question of the very
great influence which Russia has already gained in China, doubtless due,
in the main, simply to the fact that Russia has given up her control in
China, and, as the Chinese view it, is treating China as a nation, of equality.
Communism has gained some influence on a basis especially among the
younger element and the students. According to various reliable accounts,
the Russians have been spending large sums of money in propaganda, and
have been taking groups of Chinese students to Moscow for propaganda
training.
"Thoughtful Chinese do not really expect immediate abolition of the
various forms of foreign supervision, but they do demand that some steps
be taken in the immediate future to moderate this control."
Another danger in China, Dr. Blakeslee went on, came from the lack of
a stable central government. If China continues to break up, he said, the
American Far Eastern policies—the open door and the integrity of China-
would be imperiled. He said this was a more difficult problem to solve.
"As to Japan," Professor Blakeslee continued, “it is clear that she still
feels deeply injured over what she regards as the affront of the statutory
exclusion provisions of our 1924 Immigration Act. Many thoughtful Japa-


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Professional Notes
nese realize the political, social and economic difficulties of the United
States in dealing with this problem, and the unlikelihood that the law can
be repealed, at least in the immediate future; but they consider that it would
be a great help if the United States could give some 'gesture of friendship’
to Japan.
"It would appear clear that the Japanese Government is still anxious to
cooperate with the United States in carrying out the open-door policy in
China, but there is a difficulty in that a minority element in Japan is so re-
sentful at the treatment by the United States and the British Dominions re-
garding issues of racial equality that they favor an alignment with China,
Russia and possibly other powers, making up a Pan-Asiatic group, which
they would lead."
Coming nearer home, the most serious danger spot in the Western Hem-
isphere, as pointed out in Williamstown, is to be found in Mexico. The
new awakening of the Mexican people, who are in a less advanced state
of economic development than the people of the United States, has put
emphasis on the distinction that the United States is an exploiting and
Mexico is an exploited nation. This, it has been shown, has caused a dead-
lock in negotiations for the exploitation of the Mexican oil resources, which
are of the utmost importance to the United States in view of the fact that
we have passed the peak of our own oil production. Owing to the un-
settled political conditions in Mexico, and the new Mexican laws dealing
with exploitation of mineral resources, which interfere with American com-
mercial relations, it is the opinion here that Mexico will remain a serious
problem for a long time to come-perhaps fifty years.
Expressions of sympathy toward Mexico by nations in Central and South
America has given rise to a fear among Latin-American authorities that
the smaller nations south of the Rio Grande might combine against what
they regard as the dominion of the United States, thus bringing about a
balance of power and threatening the same kind of disaster with which the
European balance of power ended in 1914. Dr. Leo S. Rowe, Director Gen-
eral of the Pan-American Union, who heads the Round Table on "Inter-
American Relations," told the institute that our policy in Latin-America
should be against any such balance of power and for what Woodrow Wil-
son described as "a community of interest."
Peace by Cooperation Is Institute's Message
Williamstown Meeting Stressed the Idea That Wars Will Cease When
Nations Learn to Work Together-Summary of Experts' Proposals That
Round Tables Discussed, By Russell Porter, New York Times, 23 August,
1925.-Williamstown, Massachusetts.-Having been in session a month, the
Institute of Politics closed its fifth annual meeting here last Friday. The
emphasis of the meeting was laid on peace. Speakers analyzed the various
problems that threaten the peace of the world and offered constructive pro-
posals for preventing war and preserving international peace.
Many plans were put forward-some practical, others idealistic. Some
aimed at immediate correction of specific evils in different parts of the
globe, others held out utopian hopes for the far-distant future. None was
recommended in the form of a resolution, for the function of the institute,
as expressed by its chairman, Dr. Harry A. Garfield, in his opening address,
is solely to enlighten public opinion through the exchange of information
and criticism.
The mere fact that so many proposals for the preservation of peace were
put forward at the institute, it is felt here, indicates a state of mind that is
encouraging for the future. It is also regarded as significant that people
are no longer talking about universal panaceas for peace, as in the first few
years after the armistice, but are now working forward step by step in the


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realization that the task is much more complex than was at first believed.
The chief plans proposed during the institute have been summarized below
according to the conferences or lecture courses in which they were set forth.
At this open conference, headed by Dr. George H. Blakeslee, Professor
of History and International Relations at Clark University, the Coolidge
Administration's plan for promoting peace in Europe was outlined in an
authoritative statement by William R. Castle, Jr., Chief of the Division of
Western European Affairs of the Department of State.
"The aim of American policy toward Europe," he said, “is helpfulness
without impertinent interference; cooperation without entanglement; avoid-
ance of promises which cannot be fulfilled and the scrupulous fulfillment of
engagements. The aim of the Administration, first, last and all the time,
is to promote peace, a peace that will be permanent because based on a
sympathetic understanding of common problems and on recognition of na-
tional rights. This policy must always continue thoroughly American, in
that it must be based on the fundamental interests of the United States.
Mr. Castle said that the attitude of this government on war debts was
that of "an honest and generous creditor," that it insisted on payment, but
would be lenient as to terms. It was the policy of this country, he went on,
to encourage loans to European countries that show a will to peace and
discourage them to warlike nations. Under the Harding-Coolidge-Hughes
reservations, he added, the Administration favors our application for mem-
bership in the World Court. Without yielding its position against our
entering the League of Nations, he said, it plans to cooperate with the
League whenever this "appears to be the best method of getting results."
The government, he continued, was interested in disarmament, "gradually and
wisely accomplished"; substitution of judicial procedure for force in more
and more causes; the growth of arbitration and the elimination of causes
of dispute.
Both American and foreign speakers differed with Mr. Castle as to how
the United States could best promote international peace with respect to
the League. Dr. William E. Rappard, Swiss member of the Permanent
Mandates Commission of the League and Vice Rector of the University of
Geneva, welcomed the indications of our forthcoming entry into the World
Court, but insisted that we could not exert our maximum influence for world
peace without becoming a full-fledged member of the League. The influence
of this country would then have much greater weight in obtaining inter-
national justice and fair play, he said.
Dr. Edwin F. Gay, Professor of Economic History at Harvard Univer-
sity, urged complete international cooperation by the United States through
the League for the sake of future world peace, saying that danger of un-
foreseen commitments had been swept aside by the interpretations which
have been put upon Articles X and XVI of the Covenant. The hope of
the world, he went on, is that Europe would not abandon cooperation and
slip back into the old game of balance of power before the United States
decided to join what he called “the only effective insurance against another
world war." He advocated a spirit of cooperation between American and
British commercial interests engaged in world trade in order to prevent
business rivalries from enflaming national antipathies.
How to prevent the present nationalist and anti-foreign movement in
China from leading to chaos and a war that might pit Asiatic against West-
ern civilization was the subject of recommendations by Dr. C. C. Batchelder,
Professor of International Relations at New York University and former
acting Commercial Attaché in China. Mr. Batchelder advocated a "Dawes
commission" to reorganize the industry, commerce and finance of China
along modern lines. Hand in hand with this work, he went on, should go a
modification of the old treaties by which the foreign powers interested in
China should give up some of their rights of extra-territoriality and con-


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Professional Notes
cessions, and should allow China greater control of her courts and customs.
Dr. Rappard said he thought the League could carry out such recom-
mendations if China requested its intervention and if the United States as-
sured her cooperation. Dr. Blakeslee urged that this country make the
strongest possible efforts to obtain the cooperation of the foreign powers
especially Great Britain and Japan, in order to secure the maintenance of the
open door and the integrity of China as safeguards for peace in the Pacific.
As to our relations with Japan, Dr. Blakeslee suggested that the best
policy for the United States to pursue was to abandon all organized move-
ments to remove the statutory exclusion of Orientals from the Immigration
Act of 1924. His reason was that such agitation would certainly fall and
would revive the anti-Japanese sentiment on the Pacific Coast. If the
people of California believe that the immigration question has been settled, at
least temporarily, he argued, they probably will repeal their discriminatory
legislation against Oriental residents. Repeal of the California legislation,
he continued, would be regarded by the Japanese people as "a gesture of
friendship" and would lessen their resentment toward the Immigration bill.
Lionel Curtis, of London, editor of The Round Table, was leader of this
open conference. He advanced his plan for a world commonwealth of
nations, composed of strong self-governing units, on the model of the
British Commonwealth, and governing by the unanimous consent of its
members. Such a world state, he went one, was a vision of the far-distant
future, depending on the education of the masses in all countries and the
training of backward countries in self-government. He contended that the
British Commonwealth was a great agency for peace in the world, because
of the cooperation it inspired "among its self-governing parts" (Australia,
New Zealand, Ireland, Canada) and because of the peaceful interests of its
members.
A recommendation for preventing trouble in one part of the British Com-
monwealth was put forward by F. A. Smiddy, Minister of the Irish Free
State at Washington. He said that the outstanding problem in Ireland is
that of the boundary dispute between the Irish Free State and Ulster, and
that it could be settled permanently only in one way-by Ulster's joining
the Free State. If Ulster would come in and transfer the powers now held
by Westminster to the Irish Free State, he said, she could retain the same
degree of autonomy she now enjoys.
The solution for India's problem is not membership in the British Com-
monwealth, but is independence of England, without severance from the
British Empire, said Professor J. J. Cornelius of the University of Lucknow.
a native Indian. He said that the Indians desired more local government and
a national status as a member of a federation of nations.
Ishmail Kamel Bey, First Secretary of the Egyptian Legation at Wash-
ington, said that the Egyptians wished to settle their difficulties with the
English over the Sudan in a way that would not imperil their newly won
independence and that would promote the interests of both countries. The
most likely plan to accomplish these ends, he went on, was an alliance be-
tween England and Egypt to maintain peace and to keep the Mediterranean
and the Suez Canal open for free traffic to all nations.
With respect to Africa, James Hardy Dillard, President of the John H.
Slater Fund of New York City, said that the task of the British Common-
wealth in order to maintain peace there was to deal justly with the natives
in taxation, to spread knowledge of sanitation and to educate the masses.
Dr. Leo S. Rowe, Director General of the Pan-American Union, leader
of this round table conference, laid down a constructive program for promot-
ing good relations between the United States and the republics south of the
Rio Grande. He defined Pan-Americanism as "an attempt to develop a
continental system based on cooperation and community of interest, a
system from which fear of aggression has been eliminated and in which


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U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
physical power is not the dominating influence." Its foundation, he said,
was the Monroe Doctrine, preventing the American Continent from becom-
ing the scene of European rivalries for economic and territorial expansion.
He put forward three other necessary doctrines for the preservation of
peace in this hemisphere-acceptance of the principle of non-aggression, no
future territorial acquisition to be obtained by means of war or under the
menace of war, and judicial settlements of international disputes. He urged
the spread of culture influences between the United States and Latin America
and of financial, industrial and commercial factors in order to develop closer
understanding.
A different attitude was presented by Victor M. Cutter, President of the
United Fruit Company, speaking for American big business in the develop-
ment of Latin-American natural resources. He laid greater stress than
Dr. Rowe on the importance of commercial relations in developing better
understanding and urged a stronger policy on the part of our State Depart-
ment in order to insure respect for our citizens and property in Latin-
American countries. At the same time he deprecated economic imperialism
or attempts by American concerns to exploit Latin Americans without
giving them a just share in the profits.
Dr. Bernadotte Schmitt, Professor of History at the University of
Chicago, conducting this round table, said that the policy of exchanging
minorities, which has been carried out by Turkey and Greece, might become
a remedy for the minority problems of Central Europe. He thought the
expulsion of Germans from Poland might be in pursuance of this policy.
The Germans in Czechoslovakia, the Magyars in Czechoslovakia, Rumania
and Yugoslavia and the Bulgarians in Rumania all might have their collective
grievances settled in this manner, it was pointed out, although it might be
hard on the individuals.
It was suggested by Marshall Montgomery, Taylorian lecturer in Ger-
man at Oxford University, that the situation, if left as it is, and if both
sides were encouraged to cultivate patience, cooperation and the avoidance
of hostile propaganda, might settle itself.
For the problem of Dantzic and the Polish corridor, which is causing
increased ill feeling between Germany and Poland, Robert M. Wernaer of
Cambridge, Massachusetts, suggested that Poland bargain with Germany for
other port privileges, possibly at Bremen or Königsberg, in exchange for the
corridor. As to the question of Upper Silesia, the only solution suggested
was that economic pressure in time might bring the Germans and the Poles
together for the sake of mutual advantage.
A possible method of preventing new trouble in the Balkans was by
means of an entente between Bulgaria and Yugoslavia which would give
Bulgaria a territorial outlet on the Ægean Sea, hitherto denied to her by
Greece. This, it was pointed out, would allow both Bulgaria and Yugo-
slavia to use Saloniki as an outlet to the sea and would make it unnecessary
for either nation to take up arms to get what it wanted.
Throughout Europe as a whole Professor Schmitt urged a revision of
school textbooks to eliminate national propaganda. He advocated an inter-
national commission to supervise textbooks for this purpose.
Professor Gay, of Harvard, leader of this round table, declared that
Europe's ability to pay her debts to this country depended upon a decrease
in her imports of agricultural products or an increase in her exports of
manufactured goods, or both. He thought the problem would be solved
largely through the steady growth of industry throughout the world. That,
he said, would provide markets to absorb an increasing amount of European
manufactures, especially iron, steel and textiles.
Emphasis was placed upon the need for avoiding the creation of "eco-
nomic Alsace-Lorraines” up in Southeastern Europe. These seemed to be
arising because the Succession States were trying to smash forever the


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Professional Notes
ties that formerly bound them to Austria and were opposing the forces
that would unite the Danube basin into a single economic factor. The
separation of political and economic interests was urged in order to prevent
"economic minorities” from causing trouble.
Professor Arnold J. Toynbee, of London, leader of this round table,
showed that the fundamental approach to a solution of the difficult problems
of the Mediterranean was the realization that this area was occupied by
peoples of three groups or civilizations—the Islamic group, the Eastern
Christian group and the Western Christian group. He pointed out that all-
Western Christian and Eastern Christian peoples have obtained independence
on national lines, whereas the Islamic peoples have become subject in large
measure to the Western powers.
The great problem of the day in the Mediterranean area and in the Near
East, he said, is the development of nationalism and a desire for independ-
ence among the Islamic peoples-in Turkey, Morocco and elsewhere. His
solution was a compromise by the Western peoples that would allow the
more advanced Islamic leaders to persuade their followers to adopt Western
ideas, as has Japan, instead of playing into the hands of the extremists, who
urge a complete overthrow of Western civilization and a reversion to their
Islamic past.
Major General Sir Frederick Maurice, who was Chief of Operations on
the British General Staff during the war, headed the round table on limita-
tion of armaments. He explained the formula by which European states-
men now hope to remove the spectre of war raised by great military and
aerial forces. Instead of hoping for a solution through a general disarma-
ment conference, he said, Europe is trying to solve this problem by steps,
the first of which is to give a feeling of security to those countries that fear
aggression from their neighbors-France from Germany, Poland from
Russia, for example.
If the security pact now being negotiated by France, Germany and Great
Britain is successfully put through, the French and Belgian frontiers will
be protected from German aggression, but still other frontiers must be made
secure, he went on. Next will come the question of arbitration, to add a
sense of legal security to that of physical security, and only then will it be
possible to hope for a general reduction in armaments. The hope of the
world in this respect, he said, was for the nations to be made to feel secure
that they would voluntarily cut down their armies in order to lighten the
burden of taxation,
Dr. Edward M. East, Harvard University expert on population problems,
leader of the round table on this subject, advanced birth control as the only
ultimate solution of the rapidly increasing population of the earth. Basing
his statements on "the inexorable law" of Malthus, Dr. East pointed out that
85,000,000 people in Europe now depend on food shipped from agricultural
regions in the temperate zone. In the next forty years, he went on, colonial
powers like England, Belgium and Holland, which are overpopulated, must
have a breathing spell in which to shift a large part of their populations to
tropical possessions, where new food supplies may be grown, and must
become self-sustaining for their remaining population.
The United States and other large food-producing countries in the tem-
perate zone, he continued, will have reached a point where they will need all
their food to supply their own populations and can no longer export it. If
future wars caused by overpopulated countries stretching out for territorial
expansion to feed their inhabitants are to be avoided, he concluded, mankind
must restrict the birth rate. Overpopulation in the long run, he said, will
lead to a higher death rate through lack of enough food to go around, if
It does not lead to war.
Other possible solutions of the overpopulation problem advanced at this
conference were the manufacture of synthetic foods and the use of more
scientific agricultural methods, especially in the United States.


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U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
Dr. Charles K. Leith, Professor of Geology at the University of Wis-
consin, advocated universal adoption of the open-door policy for the ex-
ploitation of natural resources in backward countries. This would be the
first step toward the internationalization of such resources in order to pre-
vent wars caused by the desire of countries poor in resources to seize
territories which would enable them to engage in economic competition on
equal terms with their richer rivals.
He pointed out that the closed-door policy pursued by European nations in
the exploitation of natural resources in Europe, Asia and Africa might make
it impossible some day for the United States to obtain all the petroleum she
needs, especially in view of the geologic surveys indicating that we have
passed the peak of our oil production.
Dr. Rappard delivered a course of lectures on the League, under the
title “International Relations as Viewed From Geneva." Future peace, he
asserted, depends on the nations organizing themselves into a world state on
the model of the League.
“The essential aim of the League, the substitution of law and order for
chaos in international relations," he said, "is so absolutely beneficial and so
clearly in the line of human evolution that no one but a madman or a
criminal can repudiate it. At in the course of history the instinct of
preservation drove individuals into organizing their groups into states, so,
I am convinced, states cannot indefinitely live together on the globe without
organizing themselves into some kind of larger political unit for the mutual
protection of its component parts. That, as I see it, is but a matter of time.
As a citizen of a country (Switzerland) that witnessed at close quarters the
destructive fury of the last war, I would add that it is high time that they
did so, if civilization is to survive.
"It appears to me that this larger political unit in its first stages must
inevitably, in its structure and functions, resemble the present league, as
outlined in the covenant. This league is yet very far from fulfilling the
purpose for which it was created, and in spite of many admirable and useful
efforts its present status and achievements still fall far short of the hopes
and ambitions raised by its founders. This is due in part to the fact that
the mills of history grind very slowly, whereas human imagination flashes
as lightning when once it has been stirred by intolerable suffering or fired
by great visions. It is also due to many unfavorable circumstances sur-
rounding the birth of the League, the most decisive of which has been the
absence of Germany, Russia and, above all, the United States."
Count Antonio Cippico, Italian Senator and Fascist, who lectured on
"The Mediterranean Area and Italy," proposed as a solution for Italy's
problems-overpopulation, absence of raw materials and lack of overseas
colonies to which she can ship her surplus inhabitants—that the other powers
should provide Italy with colonies, or allow Italian immigrants to live and
work in groups within foreign countries without sacrificing their Italian
citizenship or cutting their political ties with their homeland. A peaceable
solution of this nature, he intimated, is necessary if the problems of Italy are
to be settled without war.
"There are, over the world, waste areas, underpopulated and under-
developed, crying for labor," he said. "Italy is almost the only country that
can supply it. The advantages of Italian labor are so great that the country
which receives it should be prepared to make generous concessions."
In particular he urged that France give Italy the right to expand by
emigration in North Africa, especially in Tunis.
Robert Masson, Director of the Credit Lyonnais, French banking institu-
tion, lecturing on "Peace Problems of France," suggested that the creditors
of France give her a five-year moratorium after her war debts are funded, in
order that she may devote the reparation payments she receives from Ger-
many under the Dawes plan to the completing of her reconstruction program.


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Professional Notes
He said that France already spent about $9,500,000,000 on this work, and
needed to spend about $1,000,000,000 more, particularly in rebuilding homes.
Regarding criticisms of French expenditures on arms he said that, com-
pared with days before the war, France has reduced expenditures for arm-
ament, including colonies, by 14 per cent, while the United States has in-
creased such expenditures 97 per cent, and Great Britain had increased them
40 per cent.
Count Alexander Skrzynski, Foreign Minister of Poland, who lectured
on Poland, proposed for Europe a "Pax Americana," which would suppress
traditional antagonisms and lead to "real brotherhood” and “the obliteration
of the physical barriers of fear, suspicion and hatred.” He expressed the
hope for an "Americanization" of Europe, a “United States of Europe" on
democratic lines, for the protection of the Continent from Bolshevism on
one hand and nationalist militarism on the other.
Felix Valyi, Hungarian by birth and editor of the Revue Politique Inter-
nationale, which was published in Paris before the war and in Switzerland
during the war, declared in an address that the great problems of the future
depend upon Asia, because the Western nations cannot continue to exist
without food from the Orient; and that the peaceable solution of these ques-
tions depends upon the recognition of Islam as a spiritual force on the
basis of moral equality.
CURRENT PROFESSIONAL NOTES AND PAPERS
"Oil Pollution and Separatora" (Report of British Board of Trade).
The Marine Engineer and Motorship Builder, August, 1925.
“Ordnance Activities in Hawaii.” Army Ordnance, July-August, 1925.
"Some Future Problems in Engineering.” The Journal of the Franklin
Institute, August, 1925.
“The Present Meteorological Needs of Aeronautics.” U. S. Air Services,
August, 1925.
"Tests of Some Rust Prevention Materials for the Protection of Stored
Material.” Engineering, July 31, 1925.
“Relations of Land and Sea Power.” The Coast Artillery Journal, May
and August, 1925.
“Corps Anti-Aircraft Artillery on the Defensive.” The Coast Artillery
Journal, August, 1925.
“Determining the Vacuum Correction Curves for Turbine Units.” Power,
August 11, 1925.
The Great Pacific War. H. C. Bywater, Constable and Company, London.
“Pulverized Fuel in its Relation to Modern Power Plant Design." En-
gineering, July 31, 1925.


  p. 2036 (#980)                      #

NOTES ON INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS
FROM AUGUST 7 TO SEPTEMBER 7
PREPARED BY
PROFESSOR ALLAN WESTCOTT, U. S. NAVAL ACADEMY
FRANCO-GERMAN SECURITY NEGOTIATIONS
PRELIMINARY CONFERENCE DECIDED UPON.–Following an exchange of
notes at the close of August, Germany agreed to take part in a conference
of legal experts in London on August 31 to draw up treaty projects that
might serve as a basis of future discussion. It was expected that Foreign
Minister Stresemann would meet the Allied foreign ministers at Lausanne
about September 15 and arrange for a security conference to be held probably
in Brussels during October.
The French note to Germany iwas made public on August 26. It was
friendly in tone and constituted practically a proposal that Germany open
direct negotiations. The note took up three main points. First, as regarded
possible modification of existing treaties, it was reiterated that "the security
pact could not affect the provisions of the Versailles Treaty relating to the
occupation of the Rhineland.” Second, Germany must enter the League of
Nations without special conditions. Third, the arbitration treaties to be
negotiated between Germany and the states on her frontiers should provide
for arbitration of political as well as strictly juridical questions. The state
refusing to arbitrate would automatically become the aggressor. The part
of the note relating to Germany's entry into the League was of especial
interest in view of the opening of the League Assembly at Geneva on
September 7.
The German reply was brief and expressed merely Germany's preference
for oral discussions and agreement to send representatives to London.
FRANCE
PEACE OFFERS TO RIFF WITHDRAWN.-On August 20 France and Spain
decided to withdraw their peace offers to the Riffian chief Abd-el-Krim,
and so informed their delegates who had been for a month awaiting Riff
emissaries at Melilla. Spanish reinforcements having arrived in Morocco
and the French forces increased to about 120,000, it was believed that
offensive operations in the autumn would bring the Riff leader to terms.
The aims of Abd-el-Krim, as stated in various sources, appeared to be to
force France and Spain to recognize an autonomous Riff state. His peace


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Notes on International Affairs
conditions, published in the Paris Quotidien on July 23, were substantially
these :
That the Riffs' independence be recognized and guaranteed by the League
of Nations, with a status similar to that of Afghanistan; that the governor
of the Riff shall have the title of Ameer and be nominally subject to the
Sultan of Morocco; that certain boundaries approximating those held by the
Riffian troops at present shall be recognized Riffian frontier; that Spain
may retain Ceuta and Melilla with sufficient surrounding territory for their
defense; that the Riffian Government shall be permitted to maintain a stand-
ing army, the size of which shall be fixed by experts; that Pan-Islamic
propaganda in the French Protectorate shall cease; that no reparations shall
be exacted on either side ; that the League of Nations shall grant the Riffian
Republic a moderate credit to enable it to carry on temporarily until a fiscal
system can be established. Certain minor conditions are attached.
DEBT AGREEMENTS
BELGIUM Signs Debt FUNDING TERMS.—On August 18 the Belgian and
United States commissions negotiating a settlement of the Belgian debt to
the United States reached complete agreement. According to the terms of
settlement signed on that date, the total amount to be paid is $727,830,000,
of which $246,000,000 is post-Armistice debt, $171,780,000 is pre-Armistice
debt, and the remaining $310,050,500 is interest on the post-Armistice debt
at 3.5 per cent. Owing to the "weighty moral obligation" recognized by the
United States negotiators in view of President Wilson's promises to Belgium
at Versailles, all interest charges on the pre-Armistice debt were canceled.
Treasury officials, however, made clear that this moral obligation would not
obtain in the case of other nations.
According to the agreement, payments are spread over a period of sixty-
two years, being smaller during the first ten years, and amounting to about
$12,700,000 annually thereafter.
TENTATIVE FRANCO-BRITISH AGREEMENT.-On August 26 it was an-
nounced from London that the British and French Commissions, headed
respectively by Chancellor of the Exchequer Winston Churchill and Finance
Minister Caillaux, had reached conditional agreement on terms for payment
of the debt of France to Great Britain. The terms of this agreement pro-
vide for sixty-two annual payments of £12,500,000, or a total of £775,000,000.
Great Britain's acceptance of these terms, in which the interest rate is only
2 per cent, is made conditional, however, upon acceptance of similar terms
for payment of the French debt to the United States. In other words, to
secure these terms from England, France must persuade the American Debt
Commission to accept a 2 per cent interest rate on the French debt to the
United States, whereas the rate secured from Belgium was 3.5 per cent.
Thus the question whether or not the debt of France to her allies is to be
treated on a purely business basis is "put up” to the American Commission.
Other conditions of the agreement are that payments shall be purely from
French resources without drawing upon French receipts from Germany
through the Dawes plan, and that a moratorium shall be granted till 1930.


  p. 2038 (#982)                      #

2038
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
• The agreement was preceded by a reduction of the British demands from
£20,000,000 a year to £16,000,000, and a French counter-proposal of
£10,000,000 a year.
..
UNITED STATES AND LATIN AMERICA
AMERICAN FOREIGN INVESTMENTS.According to a summary in the
Literary Digest of August 8, the total investments of American capital in
foreign government and industrial securities amounted to $9,522,000,000,
which was more than three times the amount at the beginning of the World
War. Thus, said the Wall Street Journal, "whether we like it or not, com-
merce and finance have forever disposed of the doctrine of isolation. With
such a stake in other countries, we.cannot remain aloof."
Figures of the Department of Commerce show foreign investments of
United States capital (classified geographically, and excluding inter-govern-
ment war debts) as follows:
1. Government guaranteed obligations-
Canada and Newfoundland. .................... $1,125,000,000
Latin America ....
915,000,000
Europe ...
1,665,000,000
Asia and Oceanica..........
442,000,000
Total .............
$4,147,000,000
2. Industrial securities and direct investments-
Canada and Newfoundland..
$1,420,000,000
Latin America ....
........... 3,225,000,000
Europe ....................
........ 450,000,000
Asia and Oceanica ........
280,000,000
.....
......
.......
$5,375,000,000
Total .........
In total the figures are as follows:
Canada and Newfoundland.
Latin America ...................
Europe .......
Asia and Oceanica..........
$2,545,000,000
4,140,000,000
2,115,000,000
722,000,000
. . Total ..........
$9,522,000,000
ENGLAND AND Mexico RESUME RELATIONS.—It was announced on
August 28 that the British Government had decided to renew diplomatic
relations with Mexico, and that the British Consul General in Mexico City
would be appointed Chargé d'Affaires pending the appointment of a Min-
ister. There has been no British Minister in Mexico since 1914, and the
British Chargé was withdrawn last year after difficulties with the Mexican
Government.
FAR EAST
CHINESE Customs CONFERENCE.—In the middle of August the Chinese
Government extended invitations to a customs conference to assemble at
Peking on October 26, in accordance with the terms of the Nine Power


  p. 2039 (#983)                      #

1925)
2039
Notes on International Affairs
Treaty adopted at Washington in 1922 and recently ratified. The nations
participating will include the nations signatory to the treaty (United States,
Great Britain, Japan, France, Italy, Portugal, Netherlands, Belgium, and
China), and other nations which have announced adherence, including
Spain, Denmark, Norway, and Peru. The original purpose of the confer-
ence was to grant China a 21/2 per cent increase in customs duties, but it is
expected that China will ask for a 5 per cent further increase and for com-
plete customs autonomy.
On August 25 it was announced that the treaty powers were in agreement
respecting their reply to the Chinese notes of last June asking for a general
revision of the so-called "unequal treaties," and that a reply would soon be
delivered, the exact phraseology to be determined by the diplomatic corps
at Peking. The reply will not take up the question of the Shanghai riots,
which will be treated in another note, but will cover the question of the
scope of the coming customs conference and the views of the powers on
the convening of a commission to investigate the question of extra-terri-
toriality.
China TURNING TO Russia.—In an address at Williamstown on August
14, Dr. Charles K. Edmunds, Provost of Johns Hopkins University and
former resident for twenty years in China, made the following points re-
garding the relations between China and the western powers:
China is coming strongly under the influence of Russia, although not
primarily through Bolshevik propaganda.
The reported present stand of the British Government toward China is
illogical, unjust and dangerous. That stand is said to be that no interna-
tional action can be taken on China's complaints against extra-territoriality
until a reliable central government is established and conditions at treaty
ports become normal.
The powers, in exceeding their treaty rights, are assisting the growth of
friendship between China and non-treaty nations-Germany, Austria, and
Russia.
France's failure to ratify the treaty formed at the Washington Confer-
ence to give China relief from foreign tariff manipulations has exposed the
good faith of the powers to serious question in Chinese minds.
The task of foreign powers in China for the next five years will be to
convince China of the sincerity of their willingness to give up special privi-
leges, and also of the wisdom of relinquishing them only as China shows
herself capable of carrying the increased responsibility.
The influence of Russia in China today is due primarily not to Bolshevik
propaganda but to the generous way in which Moscow has voluntarily aban-
doned the special privileges formerly enjoyed by the Russian empire in
common with other imperialistic powers.
She has given up the claim to immunity from the Chinese law, still en-
joyed by British, Americans, Japanese and others. She has relinquished
her territorial concessions, with the exception of the railway across Man-
churia, which, being a link in the trans-Siberian line to Vladivostok, is more
justifiable than any of the other railway concessions in China.
She has remitted all claim to the Boxer indemnity and other debts due
to the Czar's Government. She no longer shares in the control of China's
finances, as the other powers do. Soviet doctrine has gained a hearing be-
cause of Russia's conduct toward the Chinese nation. We should be fair


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2040
(Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
enough to admit that except for the content of their message the methods
of the Soviets do not differ essentially from those of the Christian missions.
With China thoroughly worked up, it is putting the cart before the horse
to say, as Britain is reported, that no consideration will be given complaints
until law and order are restored. Until China is given adequate authority
over territory nominally Chinese, no central government can accomplish what
the powers seem to demand. To establish a workable permanent under-
standing between China and foreigners, there is need for the powers to
scrutinize their own acts, to adopt a most scrupulous regard for the rights
of the Chinese people as distinct from the claims of the successive temporary
central governments, and thus definitely to allay the Chinese belief that
China is being used only to produce wealth for outsiders.
Concerning foreign control of Chinese tariff, Dr. Edmunds declared that
China never knowingly granted any such control as now prevails and places
China in a unique position among the nations. At the time of the Washing-
ton Conference (1921-22) China had been bound eighty years by treaty to a
nominal tariff on imports of 5 per cent; in practice, 3.5 per cent. Having
asked for an increase to 12 per cent, he said, she obtained an effective 5
per cent as of January 1, 1923, with a promise of further increase, to be
decided upon by a conference within three months after ratification. Until
China should agree to pay her Boxer indemnity in gold instead of paper
francs, France refused to sign this treaty.
Discussing the working of the extra-territorial system, Dr. Edmunds
declared that it was objectionable to the Chinese because it was a derogation
of their territorial sovereignty and a national humiliation. Not only does
it interfere with the proper functioning of the Chinese courts, he said, but
it has disadvantages for the foreigner. As long as it prevails, he showed,
foreign residence, except for missionaries, trade and manufacturing, are
limited to the treaty ports. To Russians, Germans and Austrians, and the
nationals of all non-treaty nations the entire country is open.
Preparatory to the rendering of effective justice in the event of the abo-
lition of extra-territorial rights, Dr. Edmunds said China has been framing
five new codes of lawy, some of which have been in provisional force since
1921. A law codification commission composed of able and experienced
Chinese justices, has been sitting since 1914, assisted by French and Japanese
experts. The criminal code was published in English in 1919 and in French
in 1920. Civil and commercial codes are in preparation.
WILLIAMSTOWN INSTITUTE OF POLITICS
Fifth SESSION IN AUGUST.—The fifth session of the Institute of Politics
at Williamstown, Massachusetts, took place during the month of August.
Round table discussions and conferences were held on United States Foreign
Policy, Inter-American Relations, Economic Recovery of Europe, the Med-
iterranean Area, Mineral Resources, International Justice, the British Com-
monwealth of Nations, and other topics of current international interest.
Among points raised in the discussions may be noted the following:
Necessity of War.–Senator Count Cippico of Italy declared that war
was "a cruel necessity." "Each nation has to defend its own right to exist,
to remedy the defects of its geographical, political, or economic situation
in the world, to make good its own individual civilization as opposed to the
inferior civilizations of other peoples.” In support of this view and in oppo-
sition to the belief that reduction of armaments would bring peace, Rear
Admiral W. W. Phelps, U. S. N., said that “Disarmament talk is foolish-


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1925)
2041
Notes on International Affairs
ness while economic conflict remains. War is a continuation of national
policy."
Balkan Situation.—Dr. Bernadotte E. Schmitt of Germany, head of the
Round Table on European Problems, pointed out that more or less binding
agreements now exist between ten of the fourteen states between the Baltic
and the Ægean, and that the next fifteen or fifty years might see the other
four (Lithuania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Albania) brought into this rela-
tionship. Dr. Valyi, editor of the Paris Revue Politique Internationale,
contended that the Little Entente of Rumania, Czecho-Slovakia, and Jugo-
Slavia was maintaining a "spirit of distrust and disequilibrium" in Central
Europe, and visualized a "Hungarian peril" that did not really exist.
Immigration. In opposition to the appeal of Count Cippico of Italy for
outlets for Italy's surplus population, Professor E. M. East, of Harvard,
declared that birth control rather than emigration was the only rational
solution of Italy's population problem. In support of the restriction of
immigration to the United States he offered the following decalogue of
arguments :
1. Emigration forced as an economic necessity by population density
affords no permanent relief to the homeland, because the ensuing birth
release re-establishes the old equilibrium.
2. Conditions in this country are today and will continue to be such that
newcomers will meet increasingly bitter competition, which must be accepted
under unfamiliar conditions and often with a linguistic handicap.
3. Immigrants who come with a lower standard of living tend to reduce
our own standards.
4. Immigrants who are relatively incompetent when compared with the
native—and there are many such-are expensive employes because of our
tendency to think in terms of a minimum wage.
5. Incompetent immigrants are expensive fellow-citizens, because they
add to the tax rates; that is to say, they require more than a fair share of
the public money to be spent for benevolent institutions.
6. Huge numbers of foreign-born lead to a foreign policy based on ex-
pediency rather than sound principles. There are numerous groups to
placate.
7. Large groups of foreign-born prevent us from developing a unified
national culture.
8. Excessively rapid growth leads to the dissipation of natural resources
too quickly.
9. Immigrant competition tends to sterilize the native population.
10. Immigration, when forced by economic necessity, tends to lower the
biological quality of the race.
Suez Less Vital in British Strategy.-Major General Sir Frederick
Maurice, of London, at the open conference on "The British Commonwealth
of Nations," said that the British no longer regarded the Suez Canal as
vital from the viewpoint of military strategy.
"Strategy," he went on, “depends on time and space, which have changed
enormously in the last twenty years, wireless and every kind of improvement
altering the relation of time to space. In consequence of the changes in
locomotion, it is not true today that the Suez Canal is a vital artery. That
was proved by a demonstration during the war, because the Mediterranean
being a closed sea with any number of inlets and small harbors, became a
happy hunting ground for submarines, and so dangerous for the transports


  p. 2042 (#986)                      #

2042
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
and supplies from Australia and New Zealand that we were forced back
into using the Cape route.
"The actual distance around the Cape is in round figures 10,000 miles, and
by the Suez Canal it is 8,000 miles, and you have got the delay of getting
through the canal. The time distance around the Cape, as compared to the
canal from a military point of view, is not more than three days longer.
"As regards the route to Australia, the conditions are even more favor-
able to the Cape route. The actual distance from Southampton by the Cape
to Melbourne is 11,000 miles and the route through the Suez canal is 10,300
miles—700 miles difference.
“But the real point is this: It is a matter of supreme importance that
this route, the route across the Indian Ocean, should not be flanked by any
power coming out of the Mediterranean. Therefore, the points that are
vitally strategical are the issues from the Mediterranean into the Atlantic
and into the Indian Ocean. That is to say, Gibraltar and Aden are really
the vital defense of the Indian Ocean, not the Suez Canal.”
Roads to Peace.-Summarizing the conclusions of the Round Table on
Disarmament, of which he was chairman, General Sir Frederick Maurice
of England said that the failure of the Geneva proctocol and the treaty of
mutual guarantee showed that the machinery of the League was incapable
of settling the disarmament question by a general treaty. On the other
hand, he asserted, the negotiation of separate security compacts which would
remove the fear of attack in European countries will remove the obstacle
to disarmament. When the European nations feel safe, he declared, they
will reduce armaments in order to reduce the tax burden and to remove the
danger of militarism.
Dr. Rappard, of Switzerland, declared he did not agree with General
Maurice that the machinery of the League had proved unfit to deal with the
problem of disarmament, and that he did not think any one security compact
would bring about disarmament. Arguing on behalf of a general treaty
instead of separate compacts, he pointed out that the British had refused
until a month ago to consider anything but a general agreement, and that
some of the British Dominions, notably Canada, oppose the security compact
on the grounds that the problem should be handled by the League and that
a general agreement would put them in less danger of becoming entangled
in another European war
"Prima facie, there is an advantage in dealing with a large number of
States rather than a small number when you deal with security," he said.
“There is another advantage if you deal with security with a view to se-
curing disarmament, and that is that the British have always consistently
maintained that there can be no disarmament except a general one."
Captain C. L. Hussey, United States Navy, attacked disarmament by
"artificial control” as of "doubtful efficiency," and urged Americans to
consider their national interests ahead of international questions.
"Heretofore,” he said, "limitation of armament has been governed largely
by natural forces, national in character. Now it is proposed to introduce
artificial control, international in character and of doubtful efficiency. Does
your own knowledge of world conditions lead you to believe that any nation
not compelled to do so should embark on such an 'adventure in faith'? What
evidence is there of any change in the basic policies of the world powers,
however dormant they may be at present by force of economic necessity ?
"Economic necessity has forced more and more dependence upon means
other than armed force for the support of policy. Let us, for convenience,
refer to these other means as the “unarmed forces.' As limitation of arma-
ment progresses, the unarmed forces become more and more important.
"Have the warm advocates of limitation given the same careful considera-


  p. 2043 (#987)                      #

1923]
2043
Notes on International Affairs
tion to the strength, character and organization of the 'unarmed forces' that
they have given to armaments? I beg Americans to do this before they
entrust voluntarily their security to an international organization. Can we
not retain control of our forces, our resources, and particularly American
standards of living, and through the powerful moral influence of which the
Williamstown Institute of Politics is such a worthy exponent contribute in
a larger measure to international welfare?
"Before reaching conclusions on international questions it will be well for
us to reflect upon our homes, our churches, our nation—the 'promotion of
American general welfare and common defense'-to quote from the preamble
of the Constitution of the United States of America, which our wise fore-
fathers left as a legacy for our guidance."
The phrase "Adventure in Faith" is that of Alanson B. Houghton,
American Ambassador at London, who is the "spiritual author" of the
present security compact, according to Professor Bernadotte Schmitt of the
University of Chicago, an institute round table leader. Ambassador Hough-
ton in a recent speech said that peace was an adventure in faith.
General Maurice, who previously had pointed out that President Coolidge
had given a "general blessing" to the security compact negotiations, re-
minded Captain Hussey that Great Britain and the European nations could
not refrain from limitation of armaments without breaking treaty obliga-
tions to do so.
Rear Admiral Huse, retired, urged the conscription of capital and labor
as well as man power in time of war, saying that France was on the eve
of adopting this plan. This kind of conscription, he went on, would act as
"a brake against war" and would "tend toward a reduction of fixed arma-
ments more than almost anything else.”
“This plan,” he continued, “invites the approval of military men because
it makes the nation enormously more powerful and therefore adds to its
security. It invites the approval of all lovers of peace—and this includes
all the military men I have ever met–because it tends to array both capital
and labor against war. Thus, on account of the great power it gives a
nation, such a nation is not likely to be attacked, and because of the oppo-
sition of capital and labor, such a nation is not likely to provoke war."
Miss Emily Green Balch, of Boston, economist, cautioned against adoption
of this plan, saying she believed it would work in favor of an outbreak of
war. It was pointed out here that the plan had been before the public for
some time, having been approved by the American Legion, and also that
Bernard Baruch of New York recently guaranteed at least $250,000 to the
Walter Hines Page School of Johns Hopkins University for a scientific
study of the question.
Sir Robert Borden, former Prime Minister of Canada, closed the debate
with the statement that while plans for international disarmament and arbi-
tration may be ineffective in preventing war they will be at least helpful and
will lead up to "the real great mission of the League—to bring about that
moral and spiritual disarmament without which all these other movements
are in vain."
American Foreign Policy.—The attitude of the United States toward
the League of Nations, China, and Latin-America was debated at the open
conference on "Recent Foreign Policy of the United States."
Professor George H. Blakeslee of Clark University, the open conference
leader, questioned two statements made about American foreign policy at
previous meetings. As to charges that the United States showed a reluc-
tance to define its foreign policies, he pointed out that the Monroe Doctrine
and the open door principle had both been officially defined during the life
of the present Administration. He also challenged the statement that this


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2044
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Instiute Proceedings
country had been inconsistent in its foreign policy, citing our unchanging
support of the Monroe Doctrine.
Commenting on the trend of events that bring America into European
problems, Professor Blakeslee pointed out that the agreement this country
signed in Paris last January gave it a "stake" of $600,000,000 in the success
of the Dawes plan, and might tempt the United States in the future to use
its political and economic influence to see that the plan succeeds.
He defined the general foreign policy of this country as "regional." It
was held, he went on, that the League of Nations is primarily a European
political organization, which was called upon, except for the mandates,
almost exclusively to deal with local European issues, and that the United
States ought not to participate with the League in such matters.
Arbitration, limitation of armament, the holding of special conferences
and the dealing with specific controversies as they arise, he went on, was
America's official formula for promoting the peace of the world.
Suggesting that the United States might solve its problem if dealing with
world affairs by becoming an "associate" member of the League, Professor
Blakeslee said:
"There must be a grouping of nations to serve at least as a forum to dis-
cuss international problems before they cause war. Such is the belief of
the majority of the world, and the only existing international organization
is the League. The United States, because of its policy of political isola-
tion toward Europe, cannot join the League. The opinion is held by some
that the United States should become an associate member of the League,
avoiding issues local to Europe and dealing only with problems that threaten
a world war."
Professor Blakeslee pointed out that a serious problem arose from the
membership of eighteen of the twenty Latin-American republics in the
League, while the United States remained outside.
"If Latin America," he said, “should have its disputes dealt with regu-
larly at Geneva, and its common interests passed upon there, it would largely
destroy the leadership of the United States in the Western Hemisphere. It
is also possible that irritating international difficulties may develop if the
League attempted to enforce Articles X and XVI of the covenant in the
case of war between two Carribean American republics.
"Should the League attempt to boycott a Central American republic or
to induce European and Asiatic warships and troops to come to the protec-
tion of a Latin American republic near the United States, it might not be a
violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but it would doubtless be strongly re-
sented by the Government and people of the United States."
Professor Blakeslee hoped that the League and the Pan-American Union
would supplement each other instead of coming into conflict, and suggested
that the League give an elastic interpretation to the Monroe Doctrine as a
means to this end.


  p. 2045 (#989)                      #

BOOK REVIEWS
A COMPANION TO THE AZIMUTH TABLES. By H. B.
Goodwin, M.A., F.R.A.S., formerly Examiner in Navigation
and Nautical Astronomy under His Britannic Majesty's Board
of Education. Glasgow: James Brown and Son, Nautical Pub-
lishers, 1925.
REVIEWED BY G. W. LITTLEHALES, HYDROGRAPHIC ENGINEER
The reputation of Professor Goodwin as the leading author in pointing
the way to improvements in the applications of astronomy to the practice
of navigation in the present generation is fully sustained in this excellent
work, the contents of which are worthy of the fine execution which makes its
issue a credit to the nautical publishing house of James Brown and Son,
of Glasgow. A master of clear and pleasing presentation, drawing upon the
rich accumulations of a career devoted to improving the insight of navigators
into those applications of science without which no cargo is ever exported or
brought home across the sea, here brings to the understanding of seafarers
a knowledge of the varied ways in which the tables that have been provided
for their use may be made conveniently to subserve their requirements in the
practice of navigation.
It is of great practical advantage to the navigator to learn to be recource-
ful in the use of equipment-to know, for instance, how the solar azimuth
tables may serve to yield values of the azimuth of celestial bodies beyond
ecliptic limits, and how the tabulated values of the azimuth may be employed
to find the course to be steered in pursuing a great circle route in any
latitude. Looking beyond the present great importance of the azimuth in
finding the error of the compass and indicating the direction of the Sumner
line of position, there are indications of the endeavor to employ the observed
value of this element in combination with the observed altitude of the same
celestial body in finding in a single operation both the latitude and longitude
of the observer: Thus it is that ample justification exists for regarding
as important the considerations which the author has introduced with
reference to conditions favorable to each of the various methods of finding
the azimuth.
His fructifying touch has not been reserved alone to the British azimuth
tables, but has been bestowed also upon the altitude and hour angle tables
of recent times to show the expedients, in the form of convenient inter-
polation tables, that may be employed for their more perfect use.


  p. 2046 (#990)                      #

2046
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
Those interests which take account of the necessities of aviation at sea
from the fleet as a base will welcome the inclusion in this book of an
exposition of the original manner in which astronomical position-finding in
flight over the ocean was made to succeed by Rear Admiral Carlos Gago
Coutinho and Commander Sacadura Cabral in the airplane voyage which
these two Portuguese naval officers made from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro in
the spring of the year 1922.
Indeed, to take the time to read the one hundred or so pages of this book
opens one of the most direct avenues toward becoming well read in the
resources available in the practice of nautical astronomy.


  p. 2047 (#991)                      #

SECRETARY'S NOTES
Membership New members joining since last report:
Pogue, W. G., Ensign, U.S.N.
Hussey, A. Rodman, Mr.
Scarborough, J. B., Prof., U.S.N.A.
For those interested in international
Williamstown Institute
politics, attention is invited to the Pro-
of Politics
fessional Notes and International
Notes in this issue, containing articles on the Williamstown In-
stitute of Politics.
The Institute desires articles of interest to all branches
Articles of the service, including the reserve force. Non-
members as well as members may submit articles, and
authors receive due compensation for articles published. Com-
pact, well digested articles are more likely to be accepted for
early publication. In accepting articles for publication, the In-
stitute reserves the right to have such articles revised or rearranged,
where necessary, in order to bring them up to the required stand-
ard of articles published in the PROCEEDINGS—the cost, if any, to
be deducted from the compensation due the author.
Contributors are requested to observe the following special in-
structions in preparing articles for the PROCEEDINGS:
(a) In writing names of ships put only the initial letters in
capitals and underscore the names. The underscoring sig.
nifies to the printer that the word is to be in italics. The
same applies to names of publications. Foreign words not
anglicized should also be italicized.
(b) In preparing tables and computations employing fractions,
sub-numbers, etc., do by hand that part which cannot be
made perfectly clear by the typewriter.
(c) In typing the script use double space between lines.
(d) When a quotation is included in an article the editor should
be assured by appropriate notation that the writer has care-
fully verified the quotation as presented.


  p. 2048 (#992)                      #

2018
[Oct.
U. S. Naval Institute Proceedings
The Naval Institute wishes to announce
1863 Edition
to the membership that the Institute's
of
Library has been presented with an 1863
Luce's "Seamanship”
P edition of Luce's “Seamanship," by Lieu-
tenant John M. Gill, U.S.N.R., which had been in his family for
many years. The title page shows that it was printed when the
Naval Academy was moved to Newport, R.I., during the Civil
War.
"Naval Ordnance, 1921” is now under revision. The
New
new book will be ready for issue about November 15,
Books
and will be known as “Naval Ordnance, 1925." It will
retail at $8.00 per copy, postpaid.
In the past, many errors have resulted from the
Address of
habit of changing an officer's address as soon
Members
as his transfer orders are published in the papers.
No change will be made in the future except upon receipt of
notification by the member concerned. Reliance upon the former
method may, in extreme cases, mean a delay of almost four
months. To insure the prompt delivery of the PROCEEDINGS and
other communications from the U. S. Naval Institute, it is essen-
tial that members and subscribers notify the Secretary-Treasurer
without delay of every change of address. No responsibility can
be accepted for failure to receive the PROCEEDINGS, where mem-
bers fail to comply with this rule. Changes of address should
reach the Institute by the 20th of the month, to be effective for the
issue of the PROCEEDINGS of the following month.
The Institute desires to obtain a copy of
Jane's
Jane's "Fighting Ships, 1924," the edition
“Fighting Ships”
of which is exhausted; and requests that
(1924)
anyone wishing to dispose of a copy com-
municate with the Naval Institute, stating price desired and con-
dition of book.
H. A. BALDRIDGE,
Captain, U. S. Navy, Secretary-Treasurer.


  p. 2048 (#993)                      #

neering
OCT 3 1 1920
VERDEN
United States
Naval Institute
Proceedings
VOL. 51
NOVEMBER, 1925
NO. 273


NST
AL
CD
NAD
NAVAT
ACADEMY
U.S. a
POJAS
TE
CX
SUN
SCIENTIA
CONTENTS
.
.
.
.
·
The Three Craftsmen.-Eller . . . . . . .
The Attempted Mutiny on the U. S. Brig "Somers."—Hunt .
Engineering Economy on Auxiliary Vessels.-Smith . . .
Standing One.-Weber and Styer . . . . . . . .
Post-Treaty Naval Design-Bywater and Prendergast. .
Vest Pocket Ballistics.-Wright. .
The Navigator's Notebook.–Weems . . . . . .
Radio Vision.- Jenkins . . .
Discussion . . . . . . .
Professional Notes . .
Notes on International Affairs .
Book Reviews . . . . .
Secretary's Notes . . . . . . . . . . . .
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· ·
::::
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  p. 2048 (#994)                      #


FUEL OIL
GAS OIL
DIESEL OIL
There is more power in
THAT GOOD GULF GASOLINE
and
SUPREME AUTO OIL
GULF REFINING COMPANY
New York
Boston
New Orleans
Philadelphia
Atlanta
Houston
General Sales Office
PITTSBURGH, PA.


  p. 2048 (#995)                      #

United States
Naval Institute
Proceedings
November, 1925
Edited by H. A. Baldridge

CONNU
IN
NS TO
VAL
U.S.NET
TUT
lo 1 873
U. S. Naval Institute
Publication Office: Menasha, Wisconsin
Editorial and Business Office: Annapolis, Maryland


  p. 2048 (#996)                      #

1855. CRAVE V AL VES.. 1925

CRANE OVERBOARD DISCHARGE VALVE WITH SPECIAL BRASS
MARINE COMPOSITION TRIMMINGS
We can supply any valve
or fitting for any ship
CRANE
Address all inquiries so Crane Co., Chicago
GENERAL OFFICES: CRANE BUILDING, 836 S. MICHIGAN AVENUE, CHICAGO
Branches and Sales Offices in One Hundred and Fifty Cities
National Exhibit Rooms: Chicago, New York, Atlantic City, San Francisco and Mentreal
Works: Chicago, Bridgeport, Birmingham, Chattanooga, Trenton and Montreal
CRANE EXPORT CORPORATION: NEW YORK, SAN FRANCISCO, SHANGHAI
CRANE LIMITED: CRANE BUILDING, 886 BEAVER HALL SQUARE, MONTREAL
CRANE-BENNETT, LTD., LONDON
C9 CRANE: PARIS, NANTES, BRUSSELS