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Music Theory: Voice Leading and Counterpoint

Daniel Szelogowski, 11/7/2023

Adapted from lecture notes by Dr. Christian Ellenwood, UW-Whitewater (c. 2018)

  • General Principles
    • Voice leading pertains to the manner in which individual melodic lines (voices) are combined to create harmonies.
    • Counterpoint involves the weaving together of relatively independent melodies to form a musical composition.

Voice Leading

  • Parallel Motions and Unisons

    • Avoid parallel unisons and octaves as they diminish the independence of voices.
    • Parallel fifths are typically forbidden but can appear under specific conditions, such as in a Neapolitan Sixth to Tonic progression.
    • Parallel fourths are acceptable and often used.

  • Doubling Rules

    • The leading tone (seventh degree of the scale) should never be doubled due to its tendency to resolve upwards.
    • Avoid doubling altered tones (sharpened or flattened) since they can lead to ambiguous tonality.
    • Never double the seventh in a seventh chord, nor the respective tones in extended chords like ninths, elevenths, etc.

  • Melodic Intervals

    • The augmented second is usually avoided in melodies because it can sound disjunct and can lead to tonal ambiguity.
    • Conversely, the diminished seventh can be used if followed by a motion in the opposite direction.
    • The augmented fourth (tritone) is generally avoided melodically, while its inversion is accepted.

  • Skips and Leaps

    • Skips larger than an octave or a sixth should be followed by stepwise motion in the opposite direction to maintain melodic contour.

  • Harmonic Intervals and Dissonances

    • A perfect fourth against the bass is only permitted when it occurs as part of the third inversion of a seventh chord.
    • Dissonances like sevenths should resolve down by step. Notable exceptions exist in later Romantic music where dissonances resolve in unconventional ways.

  • Triad Doubling and Dissonance Treatment

    • It is standard to double the root of a root position triad to solidify the harmony.
    • While certain guidelines suggest always doubling the root, musical context can necessitate otherwise to favor counterpoint or to avoid parallelisms.

  • Exceptions and Evolution

    • Many of the rules are relaxed or reinterpreted in post-common practice periods, such as the Romantic era, to achieve greater expressiveness and harmonic complexity.

Triad Inversions:

  • Triads

    • Chord inversions are used to create melodic bass lines and to add variety. Each triad position has important characteristics which must be taken into account.

  • Root Position Triads

    • Root position triads are the most stable. Root position triads reflect and reinforce the natural structure of the overtone series. In most cases, double the root when triads are in root position.

  • First Inversion Triads

    • First inversion triads are less stable than root position triads. They are used to create melodic and stepwise bass lines (Example: I–vii°6–I6; bass line is 1–2–3). Double the root (or sometimes the fifth) in I6 and V6, and double the third in vii°6 and ii°6. In IV6 and ii6 the third is often doubled. USE FIRST INVERSION FOR DIMINISHED TRIADS (ii°6 and vii°6) AND DOUBLE THE THIRD FACTOR.

  • Second Inversion Triads

    • Second inversion triads are the least stable. This instability is created by the interval of a fourth above the bass note. In traditional tonal practice, the fourth is considered to be a "dissonant" interval; the upper voice tends to resolve downward, creating thirds. IT IS NOT DESIRABLE TO CONCLUDE PROGRESSIONS WITH SECOND INVERSION TRIADS. Second inversion triads are employed in FOUR WAYS:
      1. In an arpeggiating bass line (Example: I–I6–I64–I)
      2. As a neighboring chord over a bass pedal tone (Example: I–IV64–I)
      3. As a passing chord (Example: I–V64–I6; V–ii64–V65)
      4. At cadences—this always involves the Tonic triad (Example: I–IV–I64–V–I)
      • In most second inversion triads, double the bass note, or fifth factor

Connecting Chords in Root Position:

I. ROOTS A FIFTH OR FOURTH APART

  • A. The Direction Method:
    • If the root motion is DOWN BY FIFTH (or up by fourth), move the three upper voices DOWN to the nearest chord tones.
    • If the root motion is UP BY FIFTH (or down by fourth), move the three upper voices UP to the nearest chord tones.
  • B. The Common Tone Method:
    • Keep the common tone in the same upper voice.
    • Move the two remaining upper voices in stepwise motion, in the same direction to the nearest chord tones.

II. ROOTS A SECOND APART

  • A. Move all upper voices in contrary motion to the bass. If you do not do this, you will have many parallel fifths, octaves, and unisons.
  • B. EXCEPTION: V–VI. MOVE SCALE DEGREE 7 UP TO SCALE DEGREE 1.

III. ROOTS A THIRD APART

  • A. Keep the two common tones in the same two upper voices.
  • B. Move the remaining voice in stepwise motion to the nearest chord tone.

Species Counterpoint

  • Definition and Purpose

    • Species counterpoint is a pedagogical tool designed to teach the principles of counterpoint as practiced in the 16th century.
    • It was codified by Johann Joseph Fux in the 18th century in his treatise "Gradus ad Parnassum" and has been a foundational study for classical composers.

  • The Five Species

    1. First Species (Note Against Note)
      • Each note in the counterpoint has the same duration as its corresponding note in the cantus firmus (the fixed, pre-existing 'basis' melody).
    2. Second Species (Two Notes Against One)
      • For every note in the cantus firmus, there are two notes in the counterpoint.
    3. Third Species (Four Notes Against One)
      • The counterpoint has four notes for each note of the cantus firmus.
    4. Fourth Species (Syncopation or Ligature)
      • The counterpoint creates a suspension with the cantus firmus, resolving down by step.
    5. Fifth Species (Florid Counterpoint)
      • A combination of the first four species, with freedom of rhythm and melody to create a more complex counterpoint.

  • Rules and Techniques

    • Begin and end on a perfect consonance.
    • Employ only consonances (perfect and imperfect) on strong beats.
    • Use dissonances (passing tones, neighbor tones, suspensions) carefully and resolve them correctly.
    • Maintain the independence of each line through motion and rhythm.
    • Avoid parallel fifths and octaves to keep the voices independent.

  • Practical Application

    • Start with simple melodies and progress to more complex ones.
    • Practice writing counterpoint against a given cantus firmus.
    • Apply the rules of counterpoint to two-part, three-part, and four-part writing.

  • Historical Context

    • Counterpoint was central to the music of the Renaissance and Baroque periods.
    • Understanding species counterpoint is essential for analyzing and appreciating the works of composers from these periods, such as Palestrina, Bach, and Handel.

  • Modern Relevance

    • While modern music has evolved in harmony and rhythm, the principles of voice independence and melodic interplay continue to be relevant.
    • Contemporary composers still employ counterpoint to achieve textural and harmonic depth in their compositions.