rules.md

English

- Фразовые глаголы

- Предлоги и связки

- Неправильные глаголы

- Упражнения на cond

- Ответы

- linkin

Past Simple

Active

Использвание

• Для основных событий истории
• Чтобы рассказать о завершившемся событии, привычке или состоянии в опредленное время в прошлом
• чтобы говорить о последовательных событиях или ситуациях в прошлом
  • John woke up early in the morning, had breakfast and left for work.
• Специальные случаи:
  • when past simple + past continous (When he came in, she was cooking)
• При использовании с before: Befor + Past Simple, используется чтобы показать что действие случилось после действия выраженного Past Perfect
  • he mugger had run away before Tom called the police (=Tom called the police after the mugger had run away).

Ключевые слова

• yesterday
• last week/month/year
• ... ago
• in (2020)

Формы

+

S + Ved/V2

• I started my new job two days ago.
• We hired a boat for the party last weekend.
• We bought a big birthday cake yesterday.
• I walked to the store.
• I heard a notification and picked up my phone.

-

S + did not + V

• She didn't come back yesterday.
• Mark didn't attend the yoga class last week.
• They didn't invite Olly to the wedding ceremony.
• Did you ask your guests for a birthday present?
• He didn't like the film.
• He saw me but didn't say "Hello".

?

Was/were + S + ... ?

• Were you at work?

Did(auxiliary) + S + V? (вопрос о действии)

• Did you finish that task yesterday?
• Did she have a break yesterday?
• Did they pass the exams yesterday?

Question word + did(auxiliary) + S + V + ... ?(object question)

• When did you arrive at the party?
• When did he come back home?

Who / what / which + Ved/V2 + ... ?( subject question - не используем auxiliary если вопрос о субъекте)

• What made you so happy?

Passive

Использвание

• Используется чтобы сказать, что происходит с субъектом
• Часто используется когда субъект не известен или не важен, если надо субъект помечается через by.
• Когда нужно сфокусироваться на самом действии, а не субъекте
• когда пишеле исследовательскую работу или отчет

Формы

+

was/were + Ved/V3

• This picture was painted by James.
• The book was written by Jack.
• The birthday cake was bought yesterday.

-

was not/were not + Ved/V3

• This picture wasn't painted by James.
• The book wasn't written by Jack.
• Olly was not invited to the wedding ceremony.
• This rug was made in Thailand.

?

(Wh-) + was/were + S + Ved/V3…?

• Was this picture painted by James?
• Was the book written by Jack?
• Were your guests asked for a birthday present?

Past Continuous

Active

Использвание

• чтобы рассказывать о фоновых событиях
  • The sun was shining and the birds were singing while the kids were playing in the park.
• чтобы рассказать о событиях которые были в процессе в определенное время в прошлом когда произошли другие события
  • I was watching a film when my sister came into the room and turned off the TV.
• чтобы показать что два события происходили в одно и тоже время
• Специальные случаи
  • past continuous + when/while past continous(He was cooking while she was reading)

Ключевые слова

• at that time
• still
• all...(all day long)
• from...till...
• the whole ...
• while

Формы

+

S + was/were + Ving

• I was working on my new project yesterday at 10 o’clock.
• She was talking on the phone when I walked into the room.

-

S + was/were + not + Ving

• She wasn't listening to music at that moment.
• They weren't playing basketball because it was raining outside.
• We weren't driving the car between 3 and 4 p.m.

?

(Wh-word) + Was/Were + S + Ving?

• Were you studying at 2 p.m.?
• What were you thinking when you decided to quit your job?
• Were you typing the report when the boss was talking on the phone?

Passive

Использвание

• Когда не известно кто совершает действие
• Когда не важно кто совершает действие
• Когда пишете исследовательскую работу или отчет

Ключевые слова

Формы

+

was/were + being + Ved/V3

• The bike was being fixed yesterday in the morning.

-

?

Past Perfect

Active

Использвание

• Для того чтобы говорить о чем-то что закончилось перед основными событиями в прошлом
  • She had moved to the USA before she turned eight.
  • By the time I arrived at the station, the train had already left.
• Чтобы подчеркнуть факт того какое событие произошло первым, Past Perfect для события которое произошло первым, Past Simple для более позднего
  • He had cleaned the house before his mum came home.
• При использовании с before: Before + Past Perfect, используется чтобы показать что действие не закончилось перед дествие выраженным Past Simple
  • They left before I had talked to them (= I hadn't had the chance to talk to them before they left).
  • I had finished my homework before I went out with my friends.

Ключевые слова

already

just

• We went to this bar when it had just opened.

ever

never

• They went to the concert, but they'd never heard about this singer.

still

Формы

+

I/you/we, etc. + had + V3/ed

• When I came back, my dog had already eaten my shoes.
• The thief had escaped before the police arrived.
• I had finished my work before the meeting started.
• He understood that he had left the keys in the car.

-

I/you/we, etc + had not + V3/ed

• She was surprised because she had not = hadn't seen dolphins before.
• I had not read this book before I watched the movie.
• They hadn't eaten breakfast before they left the house.
• Dan remembered that he hadn't registered on that website a week before.

?

Had + subject + V3/ed

• Had you read this book before I told you about it?
• Had you met him before you left for London?
• Had they known the exam results before they saw the website page?

Wh-word + had + S + V3/ed?

• Where had he lived before he moved to this town?
• Had you ever been to New York before last year?
• Короткие ответы:
  • Yes, I/ he/ we, etc. had.
  • No, I/ he/ we, etc. hadn’t.

Passive

Использвание

• Когда не известно кто совершает действие
• Когда не важно кто совершает действие
• Когда пишете исследовательскую работу или отчет

Ключевые слова

Формы

+

had + been + Ved/V3

• The message had been sent by 6 p.m. yesterday.

-

?

Past Perfect Continuous

Active

Использвание

• Для того чтобы говорить о продолжавшихся в моменте в прошлом или действий закончившихся прямо перед моментом в прошлом
  • She was out of breath because she had been running late to the meeting and had been sprinting for the last few blocks.
• Для того чтобы сфокусироваться на длительности активности
  • She had been studying for six hours when she finally decided to take a break.

Ключевые слова

• since
• for
• all...(all the time, all his life)
• of late

Формы

+

I/you/we, etc. + had + been + Ving

• She had been studying for hours before she took a break.

-

I/you/we, etc. + had not (hadn’t) + been + Ving

• They hadn't been working out regularly, so they weren't in shape for the marathon.

?

(Wh-word) + had + I/you/we, etc. + been + Ving

• Had you been waiting long before I arrived?

Present Simple

Active

Использвание

• Do, does, did are used in affirmative sentences or imperatives to express emphasis.
  • do/does/did + infinitive
  • It does make a good first impression!
• для фактов
  • Multitaskers cope with several tasks at once.
• привычки
• повторяющиеся события
  • I usually feel nervous before an important event.
• для выражения нравится, не нравится, мнения
• для выражения будущего для событий фиксированных в расписаниях, календарях и т.д.
  • The train to London departs at 9:00 AM tomorrow.
  • The meeting takes place on 20 April.

Ключевые слова

• always
• usually
• sometimes
• seldom
• often
• hardly ever
• never
• on Saturdays
• at weekends
• every day/week/year/Saturday etc.

Глаголы состояний только в Present Simple

• think

  • I think he is German. (=believe)
  • but I am thinking about selling my house. (=am considering)

• look

  • Emma looks tired. (=appears)
  • Emma is looking at her son. (=is directing her eyes)
  • *You can use both Present Simple and Present Continuous with the verb look if you talk about someone’s appearance:

  You look / are looking great today.

• like

• want

• know

• have

  • John has a car. (=possesses)
  • but John is having a shower now. (=is washing himself in a shower)

• dislike

• belong

• need

• be

• see

  • I see some people near your house. (=perceive with my eyes)
  • but I'm seeing John tomorrow. (=am meeting)

• taste

  • The food tastes good. (=has a good taste)
  • but He is tasting the food. (=is testing the taste of the food)

• feel

  • This scarf feels soft. (=has a soft texture)
  • but Shh! The doctor is feeling his pulse. (=is touching)
  • • You can use both Present Simple and Present Continuous with the verb feel if you talk about emotions:

  I feel / am feeling good.

• smell

  • This perfume smells amazing! (=has an amazing smell)
  • but Jess is smelling my new perfume. (=is sniffing with her nose)

• seem

to be и other verbs

+

S + am/is/are

• I am big-hearted.

S + V / (Vs/es* for he, she, it)

• She goes to the cinema every Sunday.
• She plays the piano.

-

S + am/is/are + not

• It is not great.

S + do not (don’t) / does not (doesn’t) + V

• They don’t work for this company.
• They do not watch TV.

?

Am/Is/Are + S ?

• Are you busy every day?
• Are you angry?

Question word/phrase + am/is/are + S

• What is your favourite sport?

Do/Does + S + V?

• Does he work out every morning?
• Do you like coffee?
• Do you have a hobby?

Question word/phrase + do/does(auxiliary) + S + V(object question)

• What time does the match start?
• Who do you call most often?

Who/What/Which + V(s) + ...? (subject question - не спользуем auxiliary если вопрос о субъекте)

• Who calls you most often?

Passive

Использвание

• Часто используется когда субъект не известен или не важен, если надо субъект помечается через by.
• Когда нужно сделать акцент на действии, а не том кто его совершает

Формы

+

am/are/is + Ved/V3

• Cheese is made from milk.
• After all, cakes are made to be eaten!

-

am not/are not/is not + Ved/V3

• Cheese isn't made from vegetables.
• Guests are not met by anyone in this country.

?

(Wh-) + am/are/is + S + Ved/V3 … ?

• What is cheese made from?
• Is Maria often seen at parties?

by используется чтобы сказать кто совершил действие

• This aeroplane is manufactured by Boeing.
• The pictures are designed by Lilly Baker.

Present Continuous

Active

Использвание

• Для фокусировки на текущей или продолжающейся сущности действия
• для описания действий которые происходят в этот самый момент говорения (now, still, at the moment)
  • She is reading a book right now
  • I am trying to focus now.
• действия которые обычно носят временный или ограниченных характер, а не постоянные ( these days/week/month etc)
  • He is living in New York for the summer.
  • My brother is very busy. He is getting ready for his finals.
• для выражения будущего, если говорить о договоренностях которые точно реализуются( что-то что уже организованно или получено согласие), особенно когда время или место упоминается
  • I am meeting my friends for dinner tonight.
  • I am having dinner with Mary tonight.
  • I am flying to Madrid in a month, I’ve already bought the ticket.
  • We are meeting them at 6 PM.
  • She is going to a wedding on Saturday.
• Тренды или изменение ситуации, используется для описания действий, которые начинают выполняться или тренды которые сейчас происходят
  • More people are using electric cars
  • The number of cars on the roads is increasing rapidly each year.
• для выражения эмоционального отношения говорящего(impatience, irritation, admiration) по отношению к повторяющимся действиям характеризующим субъекта
  • You are always losing your things!

Ключевые слова

• at the moment
• now
• right now
• at present
• currently
• today
• still
• this week/month/days etc.

Формы

+

S + am/is/are + Ving*

• She is reading a book at the moment.
• He is studying for his exams.

-

S + am/is/are + not + Ving

• This week they are not working.
• We are not going to the party.

?

Am/Is/Are + S + Ving

• What are you doing now?
• Are they playing football?
• Is he working right now?

Question word + are/is/am(auxiliary) + S + Ving + ... ? (object question)

• What are you doing now?

Who / what / which + is/are + Ving + ... ? (subject question)

• Who is playing in the garden?

Passive

Использвание

• Когда вы не знаете кто выполняет действие
• Не важно кто вылняет действие
• вы пишете исследовательскую работу или отчет

Ключевые слова

Формы

+

am/is/are + being + Ved/V3

• The dish is being cooked now.

-

?

Present Perfect

Active

Использование

• Используется чтобы говорить о завершенном действии в неопределенный момент с результатом в настоящем, с фокусом на завершенности действия и результате (already, ever, never, yet, lately, recently, just, so far, of late, etc.)
  • Have you finished your work yet?
• о состояних и действиях которые начались в прошлом и продолжаются до настоящего времени.( с since and for и глаголоми которые обычно имеют континоусные формы)
• Чтобы сделать акцент на завершенности действия в период времени который еще не завершен (this morning, today, this week, this year, etc.)
  • I have written an essay. I can go for a walk.
  • She hasn't seen her colleagues this morning.
• Жизненных опытах ( I have seen many countries.)
• недавно завершенных событиях
• В отрицательных предлоежниях для выражения отсутствия действия или события
  • I haven't spoken to Eliza since May. (=The last time I spoke to her was in May.)
• Используется с глаголами состояний, с глаголами действий используется Present Perfect Continous
  • I have been here all morning.
  • We've known each other for 5 years.
• чтобы обозначить результаты действия, когда мы говорим сколько было сделно, сколько раз делалось что-то, как много чего было сделано.

Ключевые слова

Just

+

• (S + have/has + just + V3/ed)

Используется для индикации того что что-то произошло недавно

Обычно используется в положительных предложениях

• Jane has just come to see me.

Already (не используется в отрицательных)

Используется для индикации что что-то произошло до настоящего момента или раньше чем ожидалось

+

• S + have/has + already + V3/ed
• S + have/has + Ved/3 … already

?

• Question word + have/has + S + already + V3/ed?
• Question word + have/has + S + V3/ed + already?

Never

Ever

For (Для индикации периода времени)

Можно опускать в утвердительных предложениях

• They have been married (for) 5 yaers

Можно заменить на in в отрицательных приложениях

• I haven't come here for->in 5 years

не используется с all

• He has worked here all his life

three hours

15 minutes

three days

a long time

five months

10 years

a week

ages

years

Since (Для индикации начальной точки)

9 o'clock

Sunday

12 July

March 2020

Easter

noon

we came

i got up, etc

yet ( не используется в утвердительных)

используется для индикации что что-то не произошло к определенному моменту времени

-

• S + have/has + not + V3/ed + …. yet

?

• Question word + have/has + S + V3/ed … yet?

lately

recently

so far

используется for и scince в ответах на вопросы how long( for 5 years, since they started university)

Используется It is/ It has been + scince (It has been 5 years since he moved to this city)

Формы

+

I/You/We/They + have + V3/Ved (He/She/It + has + V3/Ved)

• I have stayed in this hotel since Friday.
• I have known my best friend since I was a kid!
• They have been to Spain three times.
• Alex has never tried diving.
• Peter has done this exercise really quickly.

-

I/You/We/They + have not (=haven't) + V3/Ved (He/She/It + has not (=hasn't) + V3/Ved)

• He hasn't travelled around the country for 2 years.
• We haven’t been to a concert.
• He hasn't been to Germany.
• He hasn't travelled abroad.
• Katty hasn't visited the office this week.

?

Have + I/you/we/they + V3/Ved (Has + He/she/it + V3/Ved)

• Have you been to that resort?
• Have you ever been in love?
• Have you visited your parents this month?
• Have you washed the car yet?

(Wh-word) + have(auxiliary) + I/you/we/they + Ved/V3? ((Wh-word) + has + he/she/it + Ved/V3?)(object question )

• Where have you worked in your life?
• Why have you missed the class?
• How many hours has she worked this week?

Who / what / which + have/has + Ved/V3 + ... ?(subject question)

• Which country has impressed you the most?

Passive

Использвание

• Когда не известно кто совершает действие
• Когда не важно кто совершает действие
• Когда пишете исследовательскую работу или отчет

Ключевые слова

Формы

+

have/has + been + Ved/V3

• The food has been bought.

-

?

Present Perfect Continuous

Active

Использвание

• Фокусировка на том как долго что-то происходила, с акцентом на связи между прошлым и настоящем
• Подсвечивает что действие началось в прошлом, все еще продолжается или влияет на настоящее( с since, for, all day, how long)
  • He has been looking for a job since he graduated.
  • How long have you been studying English?
• Используется чтобы говорить о незаконченных действиях которые начались в определенный момент в прошлом и не закончились до сих пор или закончились только что, с акцентом на длительности не важно закончилось оно или нет
  • She has been studying for three hours.
  • I'm exhausted. I have been working on this problem for several weeks
• Если нужно сделать акцент именно на длительности и продолжающейся натуре
  • I have been writing an essay for two hours. I haven't finished yet. I can’t go out.
  • He’s out of breath because he has been running.
• В отрицательных предлоежниях если нужен акцент на длительности
  • I haven't been speaking with Eliza long, just a couple of minutes. (=Our conversation started a couple of minutes ago.)
• Чтобы говорить о закончившихся недавно действиях и имеют результаты или влияние на настоящее
  • We have been waiting for the bus for 20 minutes.
• Используется с глаголами действий, иначе с глаголами состояний используется Present perfect

Ключевые слова

• this week/month/year etc.(указывает на не завершенный период времени)
• lately
• today
• all day/week/month etc.(указывает на не завершенный период времени) They have been working hard all day.
• since
  • He has been living here since 2022.
• for
  • We have been studying for 3 weeks.

Формы

+

• I / You / We / They + have + been + Ving
  • We have been working hard.
  • I have been playing football the whole weekend.
• He / She / It + has + been + Ving
  • He has been writing an essay.

-

• I / You / We / They + have not (=haven’t) + been + Ving
  • I haven’t been waiting long.
  • You haven't been baking this cake long.
• He / She / It + has not (=hasn't) + been + Ving
  • She hasn’t been dancing with me.

?

• Have + I / you / we / they + been + Ving?
  • Have you been playing tennis?
• Has + he / she / it + been + Ving?
• Wh-word + have/has + I / he / we / etc. + been + Ving?
  • Короткие ответы:
    • Yes, I / he / we / etc. have/has.
    • No, I / he / we / etc. haven’t/ hasn’t.
  • Where has he been living?
  • What has he been doing all this time?

Специальные формы будущего

to be going to future

• Использвание

  • для выражения намерения о будущем, планы которые сделаны до момента говорения
    • We are going to visit our grandparents over the weekend.
    • I am going to do some work-out next week.
  • для планов, решений и предсказаний основанных на доказательствах
    • Look at those dark clouds. It's going to rain soon.
    • It’s so dark and windy! I think it is going to rain soon.
  • действие которые начали выполняться

• Формы

  • S + am/is/are + going to + V
    • Look at the sky! It is going to rain.
    • There are more and more robots around us, so they are going to replace people soon.
    • They are going to have a picnic in the park.
  • S + am/is/are + not + going to + V
    • We are not going to meet today.
    • My sister isn't going to have a baby in the near future.
    • She is not going to buy a new car.
  • ? Am/Is/Are + S + going to + V
    • When are they going to move?
    • Are students going to take paper exams this year?
    • Is he going to travel abroad?

to be about to/to be on the point of

• чтобы сказать о событиях которые очень скоро случаться, или начаниют случаться
  • I am about to leave for work. (I will leave very soon, possibly within a few moments.)
• Формы
  • • • S + am/is/are + about + to + V (base form)
        • She is about to play the piano.
  • • • S + am/is/are + not + about + to + V (base form)
        • They are not about to watch TV.
  • ?
    • Wh-word) + am/is/are + S + about + to + V (base form)?
      • Are you about to leave?

to plan/intend/mean to

• чтобы сказать о чьих либо намерениях, стремлениях, решительностях что-то соврешить в будущем
  • I mean to finish reading that book by the end of the month.
• Формы
  • • • S + plan/intend/mean + to + V (base form)
        • She plans to study abroad next year.
  • • • S + do not (don’t) plan/intend/mean + to + V (base form)
        • They don’t intend to attend the meeting tomorrow.

  • ?

    • (Wh-word) + do/does + S + plan/intend/mean + to + V (base form)?
      • What do you mean to do with that information?

be likely/ unlikely to + infinitive

• be like/unlikely to + infinitive чтобы сказать что что-то в будущем возможно, не возможно
  • They are unlikely to arrive tonight

be certain / sure / bound to + infinitive

• чтобы сказать что что-то начинает выполняться или должно быть ожидаемо
  • When you drive too fast, you are bound to have an accident.
  • The party is sure to be an unforgettable event.
• Be certain / sure to + infinitive (not be bound to) могут использоваться как императивы
  • Be sure / certain to call me when you arrive!

be due to + infinitive

• чтобы сказать что что-то ожидается что произойдет в определенное время
  • The company's chief executive is due to retire next year.

To be to

• Довольно формальный способ говорить о планах на будущее
  • We are to get married in July.

Future Simple

Active

Использвание

• факты о будущем в которых мы не полностью уверены, часто с probably
  • It will probably rain tomorrow.
  • The election will take place on the 25 of March.
• прогнозы на будущее основанные на личном мнении или знаниях(Аналоги i think)
  • I think she will win the competition.
  • They won't be late for the meeting.
  • I think I will go to the cinema in the evening.
  • The bike won’t break , it's brand-new.
  • I believe the whole world will never go cashless.
• решения принятые в момент говорения
  • I see this bag is heavy. I will help you.
  • Oh, I will pay in cash then.
• обещания и надежды на будущее
  • We will make sure to deliver the results on time.
  • I promise, I will return your book tomorrow.
  • I promise I will pay you back tomorrow!
• предложения
  • will help you with your project! (or if it's a question: Shall I help you with your project?)

Ключевые слова

формы

+

S + will (’ll) + V

• I think Tom will be at home before 9.
• I think many people will have smart houses in the future.
• She will visit her grandparents tomorrow.

-

S + will not (won’t) + V

• What would you like for dessert?
• I won’t have a dessert. Thank you.
• In 20 years, we will not (=won't) use cash money.
• They will not attend the meeting.

?

Will + S + V?(когда просих кого-то что-то сделать)

• Will you be at home tomorrow?
• Will you have time for your hobby tomorrow?
• Will people stop reading paper books in the near future?
• Will you come to the concert?

Shall + S + V?(для предложений и советов)

• Shall I open the window?

Question word + will(auxiliary) + S + V + ... ? (object question)

• When will you be home?

Who / what / which + will + V (base form) + ... ? (subject question)

• Who will bring us some coffee?

Passive

Использвание

• Когда не известно кто совершает действие
• Когда не важно кто совершает действие
• Когда пишете исследовательскую работу или отчет

Ключевые слова

Формы

+

will be + Ved/V3

• The restaurant will be built next year.

-

?

Future Continous

Active

Использование

• Используется для описания запланированных действий которые будут в процессе в определенный момент в будущем

Формы

+ S + will + be + Ving

• My brother will be running a marathon this weekend

- S + will not (won't) + be + Ving

• I won't be working next week.

? Will + S + be + Ving?

• Will you be watching a new TV show at 6 pm today?

Passive

Future Perfect

• Active
  • Использование
    • Используется для описания действий, которые закончились перед определенный событием в будущем
  • Формы
    • will + have + V (past participle)
      • She'll have gotten a bionic eye by tomorrow morning.
• Passive

Future Perfect Continuous

• Active
  • Использование
    • Используется для описания действий, которые продолжаются определенное время перед определенный событием в будущем
  • Формы
    • will + have + been + Ving
      • They will have been testing the new method for 2 hours by the time I come.
• Passive

Passive voice in general

• For Simple tenses to be+V3
  • Some useful tips are given in this video.
  • This building was designed two centuries ago.
  • My order will be delivered tomorrow.
• For Continuous tenses to be + being + V3
  • My laptop is being used during the presentation.
  • Children were being watched attentively.
• For Perfect tenses have/has/had been + V3 (Perfect continuous обычно заменяется на активную форму)
  • Haven't you been asked for help?
  • My phone has been stolen.
  • An important decision had been made without me.
• For gerunds being + V3
  • He likes being treated like a child.
  • The building stopped being used as a cinema.
• For infinitives (to) be + V3
  • I don't want to be fooled again.
  • Tables in our restaurant can't be reserved during weekends.
• После need и активный герундий и пассивный инфинитив могут быть взаимозаменяемы
  • My hair needs washing. = My hair needs to be washed.

Артикли

Использвание

• a/an используется с исчислимыми существительными единственного числа
• the используется со всеми типами существительных
• zero использвуется с исчислимыми и не исчислимыми существительными множественного числа

Формы

A/An

Когда что-то упоминается в первый раз

• I have a bag. The bag is red.
• Sean has a house in the countryside and an apartment in the city centre.
• I saw a dog in the park.
• Mary bought a tablet and a laptop, but she used the tablet more often.

Названиями профессий

• He is an artist.
• Tina is a programmer.
• She is a teacher.

Когда не понятно какой именно элемент упоминается из нескольких

• Open a window please.
• Give me an apple, please. (one of many, it’s not important which one)
• A linguist I work with told me about it. (one of those linguists I work with)
• I need a pen. (Any pen, not a specific one)

В фразах

- It is
- There is
- This is
- What...!

В значении один

• I need an hour.

Для выражения частоты

• I go swimming three times a week.
• I have French classes three times a week.

Описания кого-то или чего-то

• He is a good person.
• Tokyo is a beautiful city.
• Italian is a melodic language.
• She is a linguist.

В некоторых фразах

- in a hurry
- to have a good time
- to go for a walk
- as a result

The

Когда что-то упоминается во второй раз

• I have a bag.
• Sean has a house in the countryside and an apartment in the city centre, but he prefers to live in the house.

Когда понятно какой именно элемент упоминается

• Open the window, please.
• This is the pub I told you about.
• The book on the table is mine. (A specific book that both people know about)
• There's the hotel. (=That is the hotel we have been looking for.)
• Look! They are the three actors who won Oscars last year. (=You are looking at them right now and know who you are talking about.)
• The linguist I work with told me about it. (=The person you're saying it to knows which linguist you're talking about.)
• The films we watched yesterday were fantastic! (=You know what films we watched yesterday.)

С уникальными объектами(the sun, the moon, world, sky etc.)

• The Earth goes round the Sun.
• We're going to travel round the world.
• The fact that languages are dying out is partly due to the internet.

Здания, места и организации, которые вы часто видите или посещаете(the bank, the theatre, the cinema, the university etc.)

• I go to the gym three times a week.
• I went to the theatre last week.
• She's at the gym.

Реки, океаны, моря, каналы, пустыни и группы островов, горные хребты

• the Nile
• the Alps
• The Pacific
• The Thames is England's most famous river.
• The Pacific Ocean is bigger than the Mediterranean Sea.
• The Hawaiian islands are very popular among tourists.
• The Himalayas is the highest mountain range on Earth.
• Oahu is the third largest island of the Hawaiian Islands.

Названия отелей, кинотеатров, музеев итд

• We stayed at the Morrison when we visited Chicago.
• The National Gallery and the British Museum are London tourist attractions.
• The Straits Times is Singapore's English-language newspaper.

С первосходными формами

• This is the best place in the world.
• She is the best dancer

С порядковыми числами

• I live on the third floor.
• It's the first time I've been here.

С музыкальными инструментами

• I play the piano.

С last и next

• This is the last day of holidays.
• Но last/next+time, zero article ( Last April, Next week)

В определенных фразах

- in the morning/evening/afternoon
- at the moment
- on the whole
- by the way
- on the left/right
- to go to the cinema/theatre/bank/post office/airport/doctor

Zero

В тех же случаях что и a/an но с неисчислимыми и множественными

• We bought cheese and cucumbers.
• Dogs are loyal. (All dogs in general)
• Vegetables are good for you.
• Music makes me happy. (Music in general)

Для общих идей или в общем

• I like music
• Tigers are very dangerous animals. (in general)

С играми и спортом

• Anna plays football

Страны и города, континенты, острова, штаты, горы

• France, Beijing
• London is the capital of England.
• Tunisia is in North Africa.
• He lives in Texas.
• Mount Everest is Earth’s highest mountain.
• Oahu is the third largest island of the Hawaiian Islands.
• исключения составные имена и во множественном числе, включающие слова республика, штаты, федерация, королевство, the United States, the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, the Dominican Republic, the Netherlands

Части стран или континетов

• Central America, Souteast Asia
• исключения the для имен части
  • the South
  • the Midwest
  • the North

Улицы, Станции, Горы, озера, аэропорты, дороги, парки, магазины, рестораны

• Grand Station can be found in Walter Street.
• Lake Victoria and Mount Kilimanjaro are both in Africa.
• We often eat out at Charley's.
• Исключения шоссе и нумированные дороги
  • the m6, A25

Языки

• She speaks Eglish

С приемами пищи, заболеваниями, методами путешествий, месяцами, днями недели, периодами времени, школьными предметами

• Will you have lunch with me?
• I have breakfast every day.
• Her mother has diabetes.
• I travel to work by bus.
• It's time to go to bed.
• Let’s have dinner in a restaurant tonight!
• I go to work by bus.
• We have dinner at 8.

В некоторых фразах

• at/to/from school
• at/to/from work
  • I get back from work at 5 p.m.
• at/to/from home
  • She's not at home today.
• to go to bed/to hospital
• at midnight
• at night
• on TV
• in fact

после

• my
• his
• her
• their
  • you can take my car
  • I want to visit their new event.

перед next/last + day, week, etc.

• See you next weekend.
• I met him last year.

Past Modals of Deduction

• Грамматическая конструкция тесно связана с темой модальных глаголов, используется для выражения предположений о прошлом.
• Модальные глаголы настоящего времени, такие как must, may, might, could, используются для предположений о настоящем или будущум, past modals служат тем же целям только для прошлого
• Как и модальные глаголы настоящего времени помогают выразить степень уверенности
• Тесно связаны с ипользованием perfect tenses, так как после модального глагола идет форма have+v3, это подчеркивает завершенность действия или его связь с прошлым
• Иногда используются для гипотетических предположений о прошлом и тогда проявляется связь с third conditional:
  • If I had studied harder, I could have passed the exam.
• Связано с reported speach, если в прямой речи must в косввенной необходимо будет сказать must have для обозначения действия в прошлом
• Формы
  • Must have + V3 (Participle)
    • Употребляется, когда говорящий почти уверен, что что-то произошло в прошлом.
      • She must have left early. (Она, должно быть, ушла рано.)
      • You must have watched this film — it's quite old.
      • Maria was fired last week. She must have failed her project.
    • Уровень уверенности: высокий.
  • May(not)/Might(not) have + V3
    • Используются, когда говорящий предполагает возможность/вероятность произошедшего, но не уверен.
      • They may have forgotten the meeting. (Возможно, они забыли о встрече.)
      • Where is my phone? I might have left it at home … or in the taxi.
      • Don’t worry, he might have forgotten to call you.
    • степень уверенности: средний или низкий.
  • Can’t/Couldn’t have + V3
    • Употребляется, когда говорящий почти уверен, что что-то не могло произойти.
      • He can’t have been serious. (Он не мог быть серьёзен.)
      • You can't have seen Leon yesterday — he's in Spain now.
      • He couldn't have finished this report in just a day. It usually takes about a week.
    • Уровень уверенности: высокий, но отрицательный.
  • Could have + V3 (не используется в положительных предложениях)
    • Употребляется для выражения того, что что-то могло произойти в прошлом, но не произошло.
    • Использовуется чтобы критиковать кого-то или что-то вежливо.
    • Используется чтобы сказать что что-то возможно было правдой, но мы не уверены.
      • She could have taken a different route. (Она могла пойти другим путём.)
      • You could have told me that you were running late.
      • You could have slept more instead of watching that reality show.
      • Leo could have broken the window, but I didn't see it.
    • Уровень уверенности: средний или гипотетический.
  • Should/shouldn't + have + V3
    • Используется чтобы критиковать прошлые действия.
    • Чтобы сказать что что-то было хорошей идеей, но это не произошло
    • Сказать о сожаления что вы что-то сделали или не сделали
      • Your granny was very nervous, you should have phoned her to calm her down.
      • You shouldn't have lent him any money! He never returns it.

Специальные формы для прошлого

• to be meant to do
  • конструкция используемая чтобы сказать что нужно сделать что-то, потому что кто-то сказал ему сделать это, или они ответственны за это
    • They were meant to call her at 2 p.m.
  • кто-то или что-то намеревается сделать что-то
    • The table was meant to present new figures.
• to be supposed to do
  • что кто-то должен или не должен сделать, особенно из-за правил или того, что кто-то авторитетный так сказал
    • What time are you supposed to be there?
  • что должно было или ожидается или должно произойти, особенно когда не должно было
    • The meeting was supposed to take place tomorrow.
• be supposed/meant to(for the Pat tenses)
  • Используется was/were supposed/meant to чтобы говорить о договоренностях или ожиданиях в прошлом Часто конструкция значит что что-то не произошло как ожидалось
    • They were meant to call her at 2 p.m.
    • He was supposed to meet me an hour ago!

Модальные глаголы

Passive modal

• modal + be + Ved/V3
  • The rules must be followed.

Can

Используется

• чтобы говорить о возможностях
• имеет только настоящие и прошлые формы
• could используется для описания general abilites в прошлом
  • I could swim well when I was a child.

Формы

+

can + V (could + V)

• Sarah can read fast.
• Sarah could read two books a week when she was a child.

-

cannot (can't) + V (could not (couldn't) + V)

• We can't speak French.
• We couldn't speak French two years ago.

?

(wh-) + can + S + V … ? ((wh-) + could + S + V … ?)

• What can you do well?.
• Sarah could read two books a week when she was a child.

Need

Использование

• служит чтобы сказать что, что-то необходимо или важно

Формы (изменяется по временам)

need to + infinitive

• I'm tired. I really need to get some sleep.

needed to + infinitive

will need to + infinitive

to be able to

Использование

• чтобы говорить о возможностях
• может использоваться в любых временах
• was able to используется для описания специфической ситуации в прошлом
  • I was able to swim across the big lake when I was a child.

Формы (для любых времен, здесть преведены только некоторые)

+

am/are/is able + to V ( was/were able + to V, will be able + to V )

• I'm able to speak French.
• We were able to speak French when we were children.
• Jan will be able to speak French when he finishes the course.

-

am not/are not/is not able + to V (was/were not able + to V, will not be able + to V)

• He isn't able to cook well.
• Mindy wasn't able to cook well earlier.
• Anna won't be able to cook well even if she finishes the course.

?

(Wh-) + am/are/is + S + able + to V…? ((Wh) + was/were + S + able + to V …?, (Wh) + will + S + be able + to V …?)

• Are you able to help me?
• What were you able to do well as a child?
• Will you be able to help me tomorrow?

Should/Shouldn't

Использование

• Используется чтобы дать совет делать или не делать что-либо
• Чтобы сказать что вы ожидаете чего-то что должно случиться или стало правдой

Формы

+

S + should + infinitive(without to)

• You should apply for this job.
• You should listen before you speak.
• You should call your mum, she's worried about you.
• You shouldn't eat so much unhealthy food.

-

S + should not (shouldn’t) + infinitive(without to)

• She shouldn't stay outside for too long.
• You shouldn't eat this. It is not healthy.

?

Should + S + V

• Should I ask her about it?
• Should I call a doctor?

Ought

Использование

• Используется чтобы дать совет делать или не делать что-либо
• Чтобы сказать что вы ожидаете чего-то что должно случиться или стало правдой

Формы

+ -

ought/ought not + infinitive (with "to")

• You ought to read this before starting to write.
• You ought not to mention this to him.

Could

Использование

• Используется чтобы предложить возможные поведения

Формы

+

S + could + V

• You could come to the party or stay at home.

-

не используется

?

Could + S + V

• Could we go to the cinema tonight?

Have to

Использование

• Используется для разговора об обязательствах внешних по отношению к говорящему

Формы (изменяется по временам)

Настоящее have/has to + infinitive

Прошлое Had to + infinitive

Будущее will have to + infinitive

+ Для настоящего и прошлого времени

S + have to/has to/had to + V

• We have to clean the house because it's messy after the party.
• We had to call Mr Jatt yesterday.

?

Do/Does/Did + S + have to + V

• Do I have to wash the dishes?

don't have to/needn't

Использование

• Используется когда нет необходимости делать что-то, но можно если хочется

Формы

- Для настоящего и прошлого времени

S + don't/doesn't/didn't + have to + infinitive/ needn't + infinitive

• Dan has an easy job, so he doesn't have to work hard. (=he can work hard, but it's not necessary)
• You don't have to wear a tie in our office.

Must

Использование

• Для описания настоящего или будущих персональных обязательство(для прошлого had to)
• Для дачи настоятельного совета
• Для правил и законов(особенно записаных)

Формы

+ Для настоящего времени

S + must + V

• All passengers must wear seat belts.
• You must be very happy about going to Greece.
• I really must lose some weight.
• You must see the new movie, it's brilliant!
• You must fasten your seatbelt while travelling.

? Не используется

Must not(Mustn't)

Использование

• Когда что-то запрещено делать или плохая идея

Формы

-

+ must not (mustn’t) + infinitive

• You mustn't feed animals in the zoo.
• You mustn't use calculators in the exam.

May/Might

Использование

• Для выражения возможности, вероятности действия в будущем, но вы не уверены

Формы

+

Subject + may/might + V1

• More people may/might use electric cars soon.
• Sarah might be at home, actually. I think she returned yesterday, but I'm not sure.

- Negative contractions are very rare (mightn't/mayn't)

ubject + might/may not + V1

• Homeschooling may/might not replace ordinary schools.

?

Don't start questions about possible future events with may/might.Use "Do you think ... may/might ... ?"

• Do you think we may/might live without the Sun?

Can't

Использование

• Когда вы уверены что что-то не может быть правдой

Формы

Can't + V (base form)

• They can't be online, they are far from civilisation right now!

Had better

Использование

• Чтобы дать совет, в несколько агрессивной ворме
• Чтобы угрожать в явном виде

Формы

had better + infinitive (without "to")

• You had better pay attention to what he is saying, or you'll be lost.

Used to(would) / be used to / get used to

Использование

• used to + V используется для рассказа о повторяющихся действиях или состояних которые были в прошлом но больше не актуальны,
  • She used to avoid eating vegetables, but now she can't imagine a meal without them.
  • As children, we would play computer games after school. As children, we used to play computer games after school.
• would + V
  • would используется только с глаголами действий и когда время в которое это происходило явно указано. Например можно указывать время в начала предложения.
    • When I was a kid, I would wake up early.
  • would не используется для stative verbs
    • заменяется на used to: My grandma used to be a teacher when she was younger
  • would используется только в в утвердительных предложениях
    • I didn’t use to go abroad on holiday when I was a child. Did you use to go abroad on holiday when you were a child?
  • would используется чтобы подчеркнуть факт того что это было типично для человека или ситуации, used to используется для просто сообщения факта
    • It used to snow on the first day of winter when I was a child. It would always snow on the first day of winter when I was a child.
• to be used to + Ving используется для того чтобы сказать, что это сейчас повторяющееся действие или привычка, подчеркивает, что что-то не ново или странного для кого-то
  • He is used to waking up early now.
• to get used to + Ving для того чтобы подчеркнуться, что что-то становится повторяющимся или привычкой сейчас, чтобы поговорить о процессе
  • We will get used to eating healthily.

Формы

• used to + V ( за этим следует инфинитив)
  • • • S + used to + V
        • He used to work hard.
        • Mike used to be a doctor. Now he is a teacher.
        • We used to visit the village every weekend.
        • I used to be afraid of dogs, but now I am not.
  • • • S + did not + use to + V
        • He didn’t use to work hard.
        • I didn't use to like rock music.
        • There did not use to be so many cars in the past.
        • I didn't use to eat a lot of sweets when I was a child.
  • ?
    • (Qw) + did + S + use to + V
      • Did he use to work hard?
      • Did you use to have red hair?
      • How often did you use to smoke?
      • Did the building use to be a post office?
• would + V
  • • S + would + V (base form)
      • Each summer I would visit my grandparents.
      • I would eat a lot of junk food when I was a student.
• be used to + (doing)Ving (существительное, местоимение, герундий)
  • • • S + be used to + Ving
        • He is used to working hard.
        • I'm used to working late at night.
  • • • S + be not + used to + Ving
        • He isn’t used to working hard.

  • ?

    • (Qw) + be + S + used to + Ving
      • Is he used to working hard?
• get used to + (doing)Ving (существительное, местоимение, герундий)
  • • • S + get used to + Ving
        • He gets used to working hard.
        • Mike is getting used to cycling to work.
  • • • S + auxiliary verb not + get used to + Ving
        • He doesn’t get used to working hard.
  • ?
    • (Qw) + auxiliary verb + S + get used to + Ving
      • Does he get used to working hard?

Habit, Routine and Tendency

Keep, be prone to, tend to, have a tendency to, as a rule)

• Используются чтобы говорить о типичных действиях или состояних в настоящем

Формы

• to keep + gerund
  • The client keeps asking for a refund.
• to be prone to + gerund / infinitive (обычно применяется с негативными ситуациями)
  • Mark is prone to catch colds in the autumn.
  • Mark is prone to catching colds in the autumn.
• to tend to / to have a tendency to + infinitive
  • I tend to forget people's names.
  • We have a tendency to get together on Sundays.
• As a rule, + a clause
  • As a rule, I try not to work at weekends.

Предлоги времени

At

определенное время

• at 5 o'clock
• at lunchtime

Праздники и выходные

• at Christmas
• at weekends
• в определенных выражениях
  • at the moment
  • at present
  • at the same time

Специальные выражения

• at night

On

дни

• on Friday
• on Mondays
• on Christmas Day
• on Easter Day

части определенного дня

• on Friday morning

даты

• on 16th May
• on my birthday

In

месяцы

• in March

сезоны

• in winter

годы

• in 1991

части дня

• in the evening
• in the morning
• in the afternoon

периоды времени

• in the 19th century

Специальные случаи

• last + day/week/month/year
  • last month
• this + day/week/month/year
  • this year
• next + day/week/month/year
  • next summer
• every + day/week/month/year
  • every day

Intensifiers

Усилители pretty, quite, really, very, extremely + adjective (adverb)

very

• This rule is very easy. I understood it quickly.

really

• same

extreamly

• same

Услабители quite + an article a (if it's a singular countable noun) + adjective + noun

quite

• You're quite a funny guy.

pretty

Enough

Используется чтобы показать что чего-то достаточно, то что ты хочешь или нуждаешься, положительное значение

Формы

enough + noun (for somebody)

• There are enough cookies for everyone

verb/adjective + enough

• The shoes are good enough

enough to do something

• He is old enough to make his own decisions

To

Использутеся чтобы сказать, что чего-то больше чем тебе надо, отрицательное значение

Формы

too + adjective/adverb (to do something)

• She is too young to get married

too + adjective/adverb (for something/somebody)

• That task was too difficult for me

So/Such

Используется для того чтобы сделать акцент

Формы

so + adjective/adverb (+ that)

• The weather was so bad that I stayed at home all day.

such + article a (for singular countable nouns) + noun phrase (+ that)

• He’s such a clever boy! Jack and Ivan are such clever boys!

Want to, would like to

Формы

Want to + V

• I want to understand how to help the environment.

+

Would like to (='d like to) + V

• We would like to reduce (='d like to) the amount of meat we eat.

-

Would not (=wouldn't) like to + V

• He would not (=wouldn't) like to change his habits and start recycling.

?

Would + subject + like to + V?

• Would you like to start using eco-bags?

Infinitive

Формы

adjective+infinitive

Используется после прилагательных

• It is great to have so many friends.

Ключевые слова

• easy
• hard
• difficult
• good
• kind
• generous
• wrong
• brave
• silly
• nice
• careless

Passive

• to be + Ved/V3
  • There is only one thing to be done.

Subject + to be +adjective + to + V

• It is easy to start recycling at home.

Subject + to be +adjective + of + noun/pronoun + to + V

• It was kind of me/you/them/us/him/her to invite Jack to the party.

Subject + Verb + Object (optional) + "to" + Verb

• Объясняет цели простых ежедневных действий, когда вы хотите объяснить почему вы что-то делаете
  • I go to work to earn money.
  • I work out to keep fit.

"It's" + Adjective + "to" + Verb

• Когда вы оцениваете качество или сложность активности
  • It's difficult to learn a new language.
  • It's exciting to try new foods.

Выражают план, намерение или будущее действие(инфинитиная форма подчеркивает цель или назначение действия)

• Используется как субъект
  • To run is good exercise.
• После абстрактных существительных(сформированных из глагола или прилагательного)
  • ability
  • advice
  • offer
  • decision
  • chance
  • dream
  • opportunity
  • permission
  • tendency
• Используется как объект
  • I like to swim.
• Для выражения стремлений и намерений
  • I came to study.
  • We came there to talk to the professor.
• Используется после too + прилагательное
  • It is too cold to walk outside.
• Использьуется после прилагательное + enough
  • She is brave enough to ask him about it.
• После слов и их производных
  • something
  • anything
  • nothing
• Используется bare infinitive( без to)
  • после определенных глаголов
    • let
      • Let me do this task for you.
    • make
      • He made me go with them.
      • My boyfriend always makes me laugh. He’s so funny!
    • see
    • hear
  • после модальных глаголов
    • can
      • You can trust them.
    • must
    • needn’t (need never)
      • You needn’t worry about the outcome. Everything is under control!
    • had better
      • You’d better stop talking to me like this.
    • would rather
    • should etc.
      • I should spend less time online.
• После определенных глаголов + noun/pronoun
  • ask
  • expect
    • I expect you to come earlier today.
  • hire
  • invite
  • teach
  • tell
  • warn
  • advise
  • allow
• Только инфинитив после
  • would like
    • i would like to help
  • Agree
    • She agreed to come to the party.
  • Appear
    • She appears to be tired.
  • Arrange
    • They arranged to meet at noon.
  • Aim
    • He aims to finish by Friday.
  • Ask
    • He asked to leave early.
  • Afford
  • Attempt
    • She attempted to climb the mountain.
  • Beg
    • He begged to stay longer.
  • Care
    • Do you care to join us?
  • Can('t) afford
  • Choose
    • She chose to stay at home.
  • Claim
    • He claims to know the answer.
  • Consent
    • She consented to be interviewed.
  • Come
  • Decide
    • They decided to go out.
    • He decided to leave. (expresses a future action or intention)
  • Wait
  • Demand
    • He demanded to speak to the manager.
  • Deserve
    • She deserves to win the prize.
  • Dare
  • Expect
    • They expect to arrive early.
    • I expect to be back within two days.
  • Fail
    • He failed to finish on time.
    • Mariam has failed to spend the whole day without social media.
  • Get
  • Happen
    • She happened to see him at the store.
  • Hope
    • They hope to travel soon.
  • Help
  • Hurry
  • Intend
    • He intends to study law.
  • Learn
    • She learned to drive when she was 18.
  • Manage
    • He managed to pass the exam.
    • I have no idea how previous generations managed to live without technology.
  • Offer
    • They offered to help.
  • Plan
    • We plan to visit Italy next year.
    • We plan to visit. (a future action or goal)
  • Prepare
    • She prepared to give a speech.
  • Pretend
    • He pretended to be asleep.
  • Promise
    • She promised to call me.
    • She promised to help. (an intention or commitment for the future)
  • Refuse
    • He refused to answer the question.
  • Seem
    • She seems to be happy.
  • Struggle
    • He struggled to finish the project.
  • Tend
    • She tends to be late.
  • Threaten
    • He threatened to leave.
  • Want
    • They want to go home.
  • Wish
    • She wishes to travel the world.
  • Need
  • (дублирование инф из Герундия) - После определенных глаголов может быть как gerund так и infinitive, без смены смысла
    • begin
      • She began to sing
      • Julie began to paint/painting the room.
    • continue
      • He continued to talk.
    • prefer
      • I prefer to walk.
    • start
      • They started to run.
    • love
      • He loves to read.
    • hate
      • They hate to be late.
    • like
      • I like to ski.
      • She likes to swim.
    • can't bear
      • I can’t bear to see/seeing Kelly cry.
    • can't stand
    • propose
    • intend
  • (дублирование инф из Герундия) После определенных глаголов может быть как gerund так и infinitive, но со сменой смысла
    • forget Don't forget to meet him.(Action of meeting)
    • stop
      • He stopped drinking coffee. (He doesn't drink coffee any more.)
      • He stopped to drink a cup of coffee. (He stopped something else in order to have a cup of coffee.)
      • He stopped to smoke. (He stopped doing something in order to smoke)
    • try
      • Try swimming. (Try and see if you enjoy the activity.)
      • Try to swim. (Make an effort to do it.)
      • Try to eat less sugar. (Make an effort to reduce sugar intake)
    • remember
      • I remembered calling her. (I have a memory of calling her)
      • I remembered to call her. (I remembered and then I called her)
      • Remember to tell her. (Action of telling)

Gerund

Active

• Эти глаголы частно описывают действие или активность которые в процессе, продолжаются, или привычны. Концентнируется на продолжающейся природе действия
  • Как субъект
    • Reading enhances our knowledge.
    • Running is good exercise.
    • Watching ads can be so boring.
  • Как объекты
    • Выражение отношения нравится/не нравится
      • Ключевые слова для выражения того что нравится
        • love
        • like
          • • I like swimming.
        • enjoy
          • She enjoys swimming.
        • prefer
        • be crazy about
    • для выражения того что не нравится
      • dislike
      • hate
      • be not a fan of
      • can't stand
    • Использовать don't mind чтобы сказать что твое отношение нейтральное
      • don't mind
    • Формы
      • • love/like/enjoy/dislike + V + -ing
          • I love doing puzzles.

      • do not (don’t) / does not (doesn’t) + love/like/enjoy + V + -ing

        • She doesn’t like reading detective stories.

      • ? Do/Does + subject + love/like/enjoy/dislike + V + -ing

        • Do they enjoy gardening?
  • после предлогов
    • She is interested in painting.
    • I am interested in reading.
    • My father is very good at remembering numbers.
  • После определенных глаголов, таких как:
    • Admit
      • She admitted making a mistake.
    • Advise
      • They advise taking precautions.
    • Allow
      • They don't allow smoking in the building.
    • Anticipate
      • We anticipate having a good time.
    • Appreciate
      • I appreciate your helping me.
    • Avoid
      • He avoids eating fatty foods. (continuous effort to avoid)
    • Complete
      • She completed writing her thesis.
    • Consider
      • They considered moving to another city.(the action of considering is ongoing)
      • Leo is considering using the internet less.
    • Delay
      • He delayed responding to the email.
    • Deny
      • She denied breaking the vase.
    • Discuss
      • They discussed going on vacation.
    • Dislike
      • He dislikes waiting in line.
    • Enjoy
      • She enjoys reading books. (emphasizes the ongoing pleasure of the activity)
    • Escape
      • He escaped being caught.
    • Give up
    • Finish
      • She finished doing her homework.
    • Imagine
      • Can you imagine living in Paris?
    • Involve
      • The job involves traveling a lot.
    • Keep
      • He keeps forgetting to call.
    • Mention
      • He mentioned meeting her before.
    • Mind
      • Do you mind opening the window?
    • Miss
      • She misses talking to her friends.
    • Postpone
      • They postponed leaving for a week.
    • Practice
      • She practices playing the piano daily.
    • Recall
      • I recall meeting him at the party.
    • Recommend
      • They recommend taking the train.
      • I recommend installing a new app on your phone.
    • Regret
      • He regrets not studying harder.
    • Resist
      • She couldn't resist eating the cake.
    • Risk
      • He risks losing his job.
    • Suggest
      • She suggested going to the park.
    • (don't) mind
      • He doesn't mind waiting.
    • be used to
    • can't help
      • Uma can’t help thinking about the dangers of using the internet so often.
    • end up
  • Как объекты в фразовых глаголах
    • She looks forward to meeting you.
  • После определенных глаголов может быть как gerund так и infinitive, без смены смысла ну или с очень малым изменением
    • begin
      • She began to sing
      • Julie began to paint/painting the room.
    • continue
      • He continued to talk.
    • prefer
      • I prefer to walk.
    • start
      • They started to run.
    • love
      • He loves to read.
    • hate
      • They hate to be late.
    • like
      • I like to ski.
      • She likes to swim.
    • can't bear
      • I can’t bear to see/seeing Kelly cry.
    • can't stand
    • propose
    • intend
      • I like skiing.
      • he likes swimming
  • После определенных глаголов может быть как gerund так и infinitive, но со сменой смысла
    • forget
      • I'll never forget meeting you (The memory of meeting)
    • stop
      • He stopped drinking coffee. (He doesn't drink coffee any more.)
      • He stopped to drink a cup of coffee. (He stopped something else in order to have a cup of coffee.)
      • She stopped working when she was 65. (=She doesn’t work anymore.)
      • He stopped to buy a cup of coffee. (=He stopped something else in order to buy a cup of coffee.)
      • He stopped smoking. (He quit the habit)
    • try
      • Try swimming. (Try and see if you enjoy the activity.)
      • Try to swim. (Make an effort to do it.)
      • Try to think where you saw your keys last. (=Make an effort to remember.)
      • Try painting one picture. You might enjoy it. (=Try and see if you enjoy the activity.)
      • Try eating less sugar. (Experiment with reducing sugar intake)
    • remember
      • I remembered calling her. (I have a memory of calling her)
      • I remember telling you. (The memory of telling)
      • I remembered to call her. (I remembered and then I called her)
      • Remember to lock the door when you leave. (=Don't forget to do it.)
      • Do you remember ordering this book? (=Do you have a memory of this?)
  • После конструкций be/get used to
  • После выражений
    • it's no use
    • there's no point in
    • it's worth
    • be busy
    • have difficulty/trouble
    • waste of time (можно продолжить и герундием)

Passive

• modal + be + Ved/V3
  • The rules must be followed.

Impersonal passive structures

• Используются чтобы передать слова, мнения и веры других людей, или обеспечить дистанцирование от личный утверждений Используются чтобы отказаться от использования таких слов как they, some people и других, в качестве подлежащего.
  • This man is believed to be dangerous.
  • It’s said that the exam isn’t very difficult.
  • Henry is reported to have received an award for his contribution.
• Формы
  • It is + said / thought / believed / expected / reported / known / understood + that …
    • It is believed that she is a teacher.
    • It’s reported that he landed in London yesterday.
    • It is known that he’s already landed in London.
  • Для настоящего и будущего времени используется subject + is/are + said / thought / believed / expected / reported / known / understood + to V1
    • She is said to be a teacher.
    • Tom is expected to land in London.
  • Прошедшего времени используется subject + is/are + said / thought / believed / expected / reported / known / understood + to have + V3
    • He is said to have entered the house through the window.
    • Tom is expected to have landed in London.

Complex object

• verb + object + infinitive
  • Использовать complex objects после определенных глаголов
    • assume
    • believe
    • discover
    • expect
    • imagine
    • know
    • prove
    • suppose
    • think
    • consider
    • find
      • Their parents find the decision to be thoughtless.
    • desire
    • want
      • I want you to stop criticising their choices.
    • wish
    • like
    • dislike
    • intend
    • ask
    • permit
    • order
    • allow
      • He allowed us to speak after him.
    • advise
    • request
    • beg
  • некоторые глаголы с infinitive без To
    • let
    • make
      • Don’t make me reconsider my decision!
    • have
    • help
  • глаголы чувств
    • infinitive без to для закончившихся действий
      • We heard him complain about his wife. (the single or completed action)
    • present participle(verb+ving) для незакончившихся действий
      • Teachers saw him explaining maths to his son. (the action in progress)
  • Фразы с for + to infinitive
    • It is difficult for me to take sides in this matter.
    • Fortunately, there is no need for me to risk anything.
    • I left something under your door for you to read.

Relative clauses

Использование

• who , which, that, where для дачи информации о ком-то или чем-то, важную для понимания о чем идет речь. В таких предложениях не используется запятая.

Who(that)

• The man who/that wants to buy my cottage is my colleague.

which (that) refers to a place, a thing or an animal

• Brad moved to a village which/that is not far from his hometown.

where refers to a place

• A town hall is a place where a local government works.

Linking words

subordinate conjunctions

Использование

• Используется чтобы соединять разные части предложений
• Чтобы соединять разные предложения

Формы

• Чтобы указать на причинно слледственную связь
  • Therefore(поэтому, следовательно)
    • He worked the hardest; therefore, he got a promotion.
• Чтобы говорить о последствиях
  • That's why
    • That's why people like her.
• Дополняет предыдущую информацию
  • Also в начале предложения
    • Also, having a Facebook friend in the U.S. will make you more interested in the events happening in the U.S.
• Маркер для суммирования предыдущей информации
  • So, if we had the wings, we might fly to that rock.
• So в начале предложения
• Контраст, используется в начале или середине предложения
  • Although(хотя)
    • Although/Though/Even though we often quarrel, we have always been a close family.
  • though(хотя, все же) чуть более неформальное чем although, может идти в конце предложения
  • even though(не смотря на) сильнее чем although
    • • We have always been a close family although/though/even though we often quarrel.
  • However(однако, как бы ни) в середине предложения(нужно использовть ; перед словом и запятую после)
    • The movie got good reviews; however, I didn't like it.
  • However(однако, как бы ни) в начале предложения, выделяется запятой после, дальше должно следовать полное предложение
    • However, some people are beginning to doubt this.
• Предназначение (чаще всего используются в середине предлоежния)
  • to (в значении чтобы) дальше инфитив
  • in order to (чтобы) дальше инфинитив
  • We set off early in the morning to/in order to get to the mountains by noon.
• Результат
  • as a result(в результате)
  • so (таким образом)(в середине предложения)
    • I know you are tired, so I will let you rest.
  • Our local shop closed earlier yesterday, so/as a result I drank coffee without any milk in the morning.
• Причина(cause or reason)
  • because of + noun
  • due to + noun
  • as (вводит подчиненное предложение)
  • The accident happened due to/because of violation of rules.
  • As he has a lot of work, he hardly ever calls me without any purpose.

Present and past participles

Present

• Используется как прилагательное, наречие или глагол описывающие ситуацию
• Нужно различать разницу между present и past когда они описывают что-то или кого-то(Present - active meaning)
  • The situation was confusing. (Here we describe the situation.)
• V-ing
  • They went past me, laughing at my new bike
  • The film was amazing!
  • The song playing in the club is my favourite one.
  • I am doing my homework now.
• Continuous tenses
• Present participle как прилагательные
  • Для описания активной характеристики(динамика) существительного, намекая что существительное выполняет действие
    • The movie is entertaining. (The movie causes entertainment.)
    • She gave an inspiring speech. (The speech inspires people.)
  • Нужно различать с past participle
    • present ongoing: The problem is confusing. (The problem causes confusion.)
    • past completed: I am confused by the problem. (The problem caused confusion to me.)
• present participle clause

  • Описывают происходящие действия, которые происходят в одно и тоже время с действиями в основной части предложения

  • Такие подпредложения говорят о том что два предлоежния связаны во времени или причине.

  • Субъкт дополнительного подпредложения обычно тот же самы что и у основной части

  • Предполгается что дается акцент на происходящих, активных событиях

  • Они служат цели сделать предложения короче и более ествественными, объединяя несколько действий в одно предложение

  • Чтобы дать результат действия

    • No one laughed at his joke, making him uncomfortable. (No one laughed at his joke, which made him uncomfortable.)
    • The storm hit, causing widespread damage.

  • Чтобы дать причину действия

    • Having no more work to do, Peter decided to go home early. (As Peter had no more work to do, he decided to go home early.)
    • Knowing the answer, she raised her hand. (Because she knew the answer, she raised her hand.) (The storm hit and as a result, widespread damage occurred.)

  • Чтобы рассказать о двух одновременных или последовательных действиях

    • Walking in the park downtown, George met his old friend. (George met his old friend while he was walking in the park downtown.)
    • Walking to school, he saw his friend. (He was walking and saw his friend at the same time.)

  • Чтобы дать дополнительную информацию о существительном в основной части

    • Opening next spring, the hotel will feature a water park, conference facilities and a full-service spa. (The hotel will feature a water park, conference facilities and a full-service spa. It will open next spring.)

  • Мы можем использовать present clauses после подчинительных союзов

    • Before taking the exam, you should go over all your notes. When planning your vacation, consider visiting a new destination.
• reduced present relative clauses способ сократить относительные придаточные предложения, чтобы сделать речь более компактной, убирается относительное местоимение(which, that, who) и вспомогательный глагол
  • полное
    • The woman who is singing on the stage is very talented (Женщина, которая поет на сцене, очень талантлива).
    • The car that is parked outside belongs to my neighbor (Машина, которая припаркована снаружи, принадлежит моему соседу).
  • сокращенное
    • The woman singing on the stage is very talented (Женщина, поющая на сцене, очень талантлива).
    • The car parked outside belongs to my neighbor (Машина, припаркованная снаружи, принадлежит моему соседу).
• Нужно отличать от герундия -I enjoy reading (Я наслаждаюсь чтением) — герундий выступает в роли дополнения.
  • Reading is fun (Чтение — это весело) — глагольное существительное.

Past

• Используется как прилагательное, наречие или глагол для того чтобы показать опыт или отношение к ситуации
• Нужно различать разницу между present и past когда они описывают что-то или кого-то(Past - passive meaning)
  • She was confused. (Here we say what the person thought or experienced.)
• V+ed/V3
  • A broken phone was on the table.
  • She was amused by the accident.
  • The names mentioned in the report were unknown to me.
  • The homework was done by me.
  • I have done my homework.
• Perfect tenses Указывает на совершенные действия в настоящем, прошлом или будущем
  • She has written a letter.
  • She has visited Italy.
• Passive voice Фокусирует внимание на объекте действия, а не акторе
  • S+ form of "be" + past participle
    • The cake was baked by John. (The cake receives the action of being baked.)
  • The cake was baked by John.
  • The letter was written by her.
  • The letter is written (Present Passive)
  • The letter was written (Past Passive)
  • The letter will be written (Future Passive)
• В роли прилагательного, описывает существительное, часто передает идею что существительное в состоянии вызыванном совершенным дейсттвием.
  • The finished project is on the table.
  • The broken chair needs fixing.
  • The broken window needs to be repaired. (The window is in a state of being broken)
  • He was bored by the lecture. (He experienced boredom as a result of the lecture)
• Неправильные формы
  • I have eaten lunch
  • He has eaten dinner
• Past Participle Clauses
  • Используются для индикации что действие закончилось или выражает пассивность. Описывают действие которое закончилось перед действием в осноной части или является его результатом.
  • Субъект подпредложение обычно тот же самый что и в основной части
  • Часто заменяют passive relative clauses чтобы сделать предложение короче.
  • Для завершенных действий, чаще всего перед основным действием
    • Exhausted from work, she went straight to bed. (She was exhausted, and as a result, she went to bed.)
  • Пассивное значение, индицирующее что что-то было сделано с субъектом предложения или результируещее состояние
    • Defeated by the enemy, the soldiers retreated. (The soldiers were defeated, so they retreated.)
  • Причина(cause), может так же описывать reason, но с пассивной перспективы
    • Surprised by the news, she didn't know what to say. (Because she was surprised, she didn’t know what to say.)
  • Результат
• Reduced past relative clauses - способ сократить относительные придаточные предложения, чтобы сделать речь более компактной, убирается относительное местоимение(which, that, who) и вспомогательный глагол
  • полные
    • The letter that was written by John was lost (Письмо, которое было написано Джоном, было утеряно).
    • The car which was damaged in the accident was repaired (Машина, которая была повреждена в аварии, была отремонтирована).
  • сокращенные
    • The letter written by John was lost (Письмо, написанное Джоном, было утеряно).
    • The car damaged in the accident was repaired (Машина, поврежденная в аварии, была отремонтирована).
• Perfect infinitives Это форма инфинитива показывающая что действие произошло до другого действия в любом времени
  • Образуется как to have + Past participle
  • Выражение завершенности или предшестующего действия
    • I am glad to have met her before she left (Я рад, что встретил её до того, как она уехала). Здесь подчеркивается, что встреча произошла до отъезда.
    • She seems to have forgotten my birthday (Кажется, она забыла о моём дне рождения). Действие (забывание) произошло до момента, когда об этом заговорили.
    • He hopes to have completed the project by next week (Он надеется завершить проект к следующей неделе). Ожидается, что действие (завершение проекта) будет выполнено до определенного момента в будущем.
  • Часто используется с модальными глаголами для выражения предположений о прошлом или сожалений
    • Must have: для предположений, уверенности о прошлом:
      • She must have forgotten the meeting (Она, должно быть, забыла о встрече).
    • Could have / might have: для предположений о возможных действиях в прошлом:
      • They could have arrived by now (Они могли бы уже приехать к этому времени).
    • Should have: для выражения сожаления о том, что что-то не было сделано:
      • I should have studied harder (Мне следовало бы учиться усерднее).
  • После определенных глаголов и выражений: Некоторые глаголы и фразы требуют использования perfect infinitive, если подразумевается завершенное или предшествующее действие:
    • Would like to have:
      • I would like to have seen that movie (Мне бы хотелось посмотреть тот фильм).
    • Appear / seem to have:
      • She seems to have lost her keys (Кажется, она потеряла свои ключи).
    • Claim to have:
      • He claims to have written that book (Он утверждает, что написал ту книгу).
      • He claims to have finished the work.
      • He claims to have finished the project. (He claims that the project was completed before now.)
  • Present context:
    • He seems to have finished the work (Кажется, он закончил работу). Здесь совершенный инфинитив показывает, что работа завершена к моменту говорения.
  • Past context:
    • I was happy to have helped them (Я был рад, что помог им). Действие (помощь) произошло раньше другого действия (радость).
  • Future context:
    • They hope to have passed the exam by next week (Они надеются сдать экзамен к следующей неделе). Ожидается, что действие будет завершено к будущему моменту.

Ключевые различия и ошибки

• Фокусировка
  • present: Происходящие или одновременные события
  • past: Завершенные действия или пассивные состояния
• Когда действие происходит
  • present: В то же время что и осноное действие
  • past: Перед действием в основном предложении
• Активное или пассивное
  • present: Описывает действие которое субъект делает(активное)
  • past: Описывает действие которое было сделано над субъектом(пассивное)
• Субъект
  • present: Субъект совершает действие(тот же что в основном)
    • Walking home, she met her friend.
  • past: Субъект подвергся действию
    • Exhausted from the hike, he collapsed.
• Использование связанных подпредложений
  • Present: Заменяет активноые связанное подпредложение
    • The man running is my friend.
  • Past: Заменяет пассивное связанное подпредложение
    • The cake baked yesterday is delicious.
• Основные ошибки
  • Использование неправильного причастия
    • не использовать present когда действие уже закончено.
      • Working all day, he went home if you mean Having worked all day, he went home (completed action).
  • Неправильное расположение
    • подчиненная часть должна иметь тот же субъект как и основная часть
      • Walking down the street, the flowers were blooming is incorrect because the flowers are not walking. It should be Walking down the street, I saw the flowers blooming.

Adjectives ending in -ed -ing

Использование

Ключевые слова

• relaxed/relaxing
• bored/boring
• interested/interesting

Прилагательные оканьчивающиеся на -ed показывают чьи-то чувтва

• Bill was excited about his trip. But then he was surprised that it was over so soon.

Прилагательные заканчивающиеся на -ing описывают людий и вещи

• Bill's trip was exciting. He saw amazing sights.

Indefinite pronouns

Использование some/any/no + body/thing/where для разговора о людях и вещах без того чтобы объяснять кто или что они

body/one для людей

thing вещей

where вещей

some + one/body/thing/where

• Lily spoke to someone from Italy.

any

Use any + one/body/thing/where to say "it doesn't matter who/what/where". Use it when you answer questions.

— What would you like to drink?
— Anything cold.

- (negative verb)

any + one/body/thing/where

• I haven't heard anything about this tour.

?

any + one/body/thing/where

• Are you going anywhere this summer?

no

Use singular verbs after -one and -body.

• Nobody understands this rule(but you do).

- (positive verb)

no + one/body/thing/where

• They have nowhere to stay. #Quantifiers

Countable and Uncountable

Countable

• Используются для вещей которые можно сосчитать
  • Cats
  • Pizzas
• Используется a в значении одна вещь
  • Who needs a car when you can walk?
• Используется форма множествественного числа для множества вещей
  • Dogs are my favourite animals.
• Используется many
  • Nick didn’t go to many clubs in Ibiza.

Uncountable

Слова обозначающие абстрактные идеи

• information
  • I’ve heard some information about your new course, can I join it?
• homework
  • I do homework every day.
• knowledge
• work
• advice
  • My grandma always gives me some advice about life.
• traffic
• money
  • Money is not the main thing in life.
• news etc. They haven’t had any news about when they can come back home.

Субстанции

• water
• milk
• wine
• silver

Название группы вещей

• luggage
  • James took 2 pieces of luggage on the plane.
• furniture etc.
  • Rose bought a new piece of furniture for her garden.

Погода

• weather
• snow
• rain etc.

Quantifiers

Much/Many

Ипользование

• Чтобы сказать что чего-то много
• Используются обычно в отрицательных и вопросительных предложениях
• Для положительных использутеся a lot of
• Many используется для исчислимых
  • Have you bought many hats at a discount? Yes, but I don’t really need them!
• Much для неисчислимых
  • Rashid doesn’t like to spend much time on shopping.

Little/ A little

• Используется little чтобы описать что чего-то мало, но не достаточно
• Используетя a little для описания того что чего-то мало, но достаточно
• little и a little используется для неисчислимых
  • There is little time to choose! The sale ends today!
  • I will order taxi. I’ve got a little money for it.

Few/A frew

• Few используется для описания малого числа чего-то, чего не достаточно
• A Few используется для малого числа чего-то, но которого достаточно
• Few и a few используются с множественным числом исчислимых
  • They had few phones on this website so I checked a different one.
  • I have a few friends in this city, so I always have someone to talk to.

Conditionals

Would....

• would you like = do you want? - чтобы предлагать что-либо
  • Would you like some coffee?
• would you like to - для приглашения
  • Would you like to go for a walk?
• I’d like = i would like - вежливая форма сказать i want

Другие уловные стуктуры как альтернативы к if

• выражает нигативное условие, означеющее - если не, только если
  • Unless ( except if.)
    • Unless we leave now, we're going to be late.
    • He won't come unless you ask him.
• Even if(даже если)
  • Even if you apologize, I'll never forgive you.
• Otherwise(в противном случае)
  • You should revise for your test, otherwise you won't pass it.
• чтобы дать формальные инструкции
  • In case (на тот случай, если)
    • I'll buy some snacks in case I get hungry on the road.
    • Write down my telephone number in case you forget.
  • In (the) case of ( В случае)
    • In (the) case of emergency, evacuate the building.
    • In case of emergency, call this number.
• когда условие необходимо для результата
  • Provided (that), Providing (that)(В случае чего)
    • You can borrow my laptop, provided that you give it back to me before the weekend.
    • You can have a pet provided that you promise to look after it.
  • On condition that(при условии что)
    • I allow my daughter to spend the night at her friend's house on condition that she calls me every two hours.
  • As/so long as (Пока)
    • This trip is going to be perfectly safe as long as you follow the guide's instructions.
  • only if
• чтобы говорить о воображаемых ситуации
  • Suppose/Supposing(Предполагая)/Assuming/What if
    • Suppose we discover alien life next year, what do you think will happen?
    • Supposing something goes wrong, what then?
    • Supposing you were late for the train, you would have to buy a new ticket, wouldn't you?
    • What if I had accidentally revealed her secret?
• If… should(если следует)
  • If you should see Amy today, tell her to call me.
• If… (should) happen to ( Если должно случится с)
  • If you (should) happen to find my keys, can you put them on my table?
• чтобы говорить о прошлых нужных условиях
  • but for + noun
    • But for your help, I wouldn't have been able to complete the task in time.

Zero

Использование

• Используется чтобы дать определение или выразить общий или научный факт
  • Water starts boiling if the temperature is above 100 °C.
• Повторяющиеся ситуации со стабильными результатами(всегда верно)
  • If my son cleans his room, I let him play video games. (Repeated occasion: I do it every time.)
  • If/When the temperature falls below 0, water turns into ice.
  • If/When my husband has a cold, I usually catch it.
• Можем использовать модальные глаголы и повелительные формы
  • I can help you if I have time.
  • If you have time tomorrow, call me.

Формы

If/When/Whenever(Когда же) + present tense, present tense

• Whenever my children get good grades, I give them a small reward.
• Present Simple + Present Simple
  • If you walk in the rain, you get wet.
  • If you mix all the colors, you get white.
  • If you eat a lot of fatty foods, you become overweight.
• Present Simple + Present Continuous
  • Jane always brings me small gifts if she is travelling abroad.
  • Fake gold darkens when it is being burnt.
• Present Perfect + Present Perfect
  • You haven't lived unless you have heard Jimi Hendrix playing the guitar.

First conditional

Использование

• Используется для речи о реалистичных или скорее всего случащихся условиях в настоящем и будущем и результатах в настоящем или будущем
  • Our grandchildren might live in a very different world unless technological development slows down.
  • If my children get good grades, I'll take them to the zoo.
  • If I take them to the zoo, we're going to see a lot of animals there.
  • When we see all the animals, my children will be very happy.
  • And if they are happy, they might be even more motivated to study.
• В разговоре мы используем be going to вместо настоящего времени
  • If I'm going to catch the train, I‘ll have to leave now.
  • We'll need more chairs if we're going to invite so many people to the performance.
• Использовать повелительную форму, чтобы дать инструкции
  • If you see a big red button, don't touch it!
• Используется инвертация чтобы сделать предложение более иптатичным
  • Should you happen to see Martha, please instruct her to come to my office.
  • Had it not been for Mary’s laziness, she might do all the housework.
• Можно использовать другие модальные или полу-модальные глаголы вместо will
  • If I buy some cheese and milk, I can make French cream soup.
  • We should/ought to arrive on time if the train doesn't make any stops.
  • Mike has to tell Sarah the truth if he wants her to forgive him.
• Альтернативы к if
  • When/As soon as/After/Before/Until/While Что-то возможно произойдет в определенное время
    • When you come home, I'll call you.
    • After I finish my homework, I'll have lunch.
    • I'll look at the files before I go to bed.
    • I'll call you when I get home.
    • We'll announce the results as soon as they become available.
    • Unless I finish my final report on time, I won't get a bonus.
  • Мы готовы к чему-то что может случится In case
    • I'll take an umbrella in case it rains.
    • I’ll leave my mobile phone switched on in case Jane calls. (= because it is possible she will call)
    • I’ll draw a map for you in case you have problems finding our house. (= because it is possible you will have problems)
    • I’ll remind them about the meeting in case they’ve forgotten. (= because it is possible they have forgotten)
  • If not или only if Unless
    • Unless we do it now, it'll be too late. (= If we don't do it now, it’ll be too late.)
    • I won't comment on your work unless you ask me to. (= I will only comment on your work if you ask me.)
  • мы знаем что что-то может случится, беря во внимание, определенные условия(концессии)( provided(that), unless, uven if, althouh)
    • Even if the boss is late, we'll start the meeting on time.

Формы

If/As long as/On condition that/Unless + present tense, future form/be going to (используется запятая)

• If they save enough money, they will buy a flat.
• If you explain the issue to me, I will be able to help you.
• Unless we leave now, we will be late.
• I will allow my daughter to spend the night at her friend's house on condition that she calls me every two hours.
• If I do all my work on time, I'll spend some time with my family.
• If you have revised, you'll have no problems with the exam.
• If I stay at home, I am going to watch Mad Max.
• Unless it rains, we will go to the festival. (Present Simple + Future Simple)
• If you help me, I will have completed the assignment by Monday. (Present Simple + Future Perfect)

Future tense if + Present tense

• You will not get much privacy if you rent a flat.
• I will buy this book if i have money next week
• She won't go out unless she has recovered.(Future Simple + Present Perfect)
• We will be playing cards all day long if it snows again.(Future Continuous/Perfect + Present Simple)

If + present tense, any structure with future meaning

• If my boss gives me a bonus next month, I hope to be able to buy a car.

If/When + present tense, imperative(можно дать инструкции или предложение)

• When you come home, text me that everything's fine.
• If you don't feel well, go home!
• Call the police immediately if you are witnessing a crime.
• Don't call me if it is not an emergency.
• Turn off the lights when you are going to sleep.

If + present tense, modal verb + infinitive

• If he apologises, I might forgive him.

Second conditional

Использование

• Используется для того чтобы сказать о воображаемой(не реалистичной) или гипотетической ситуации в настоящем или будущем.
  • If I were an only child, I wouldn't have to share my toys.
  • If Tina worked harder, she would be a CEO by now.
  • If Tina worked harder, she would be a CEO by now.
  • Mike would look like Charles Dickens if he had a beard.
  • If people could fly, we wouldn't need cars.
  • People would care more about politics if they could understand it better.
• Чтобы дать совет( If i were you) или попросить совета
  • I wouldn't touch that insect if I were you.
  • If I were you, I'd stop smoking so much.
  • If I were you, I would think very carefully about that job offer.
  • I wouldn't eat that if I were you.
• можно использовать might, could, should вместо would
  • We could have a dog if we didn't live in a tiny apartment.
  • If I didn't have two dogs, I could travel more.
  • Celine might be happier if she didn't work in tech support.
• В разговорном американском говорящие иногда использоуют would в if части
  • US: I don't know how I would react if I saw / would see a bear.
  • UK: I don't know how I would react if I saw a bear.
• В неформальном английском вы можем использовать и was и were(более формальный) после if
  • Formal: If I were less busy with work, I'd spend more time with the kids.
  • Informal: If I was/were less busy with work, I'd spend more time with the kids.
• Можем инвертировать предложение для того чтобы звучало более импатично
  • Were we to start using only renewable energy, it would still not solve the problem of pollution.
• Другие условные структуры
  • If it wasn't/weren't for + somebody/something
    • If it wasn't/weren't for you, I'd feel very lonely.
    • You wouldn’t be a manager if it wasn't/weren't for Mark's help.
  • Were it not for + somebody/something
    • Were it not for my friends, I would have a very hard time here.
  • Provided that, Providing that
    • Sam would be content with working for an international corporation provided that his salary was big enough.
  • As/so long as
    • I could live with a roommate as long as I had my own space.
  • Suppose/Supposing
    • Supposing your landlord evicted you, where would you live?
  • If somebody/something were to
    • Would it help the city if the mayor were to build more parks?
  • If somebody/something happened to
    • If you happened to see a crime, what would you do?

Формы

Можно импользовать would('d) + infinitive (без if) для того чтобы говорить о imaginary ситуациях

• I would visit you.
• I'd travel more.

Использовать could + infinitive для гипотетической возможности

• If he knew Jim, he could ask him about the job. (He does not know Jim, so he has no ability to ask him.)

Если в if используется to be

• Корретно использовать were для всех субъектов
  • If I were you, I would apply for this job.
• В разговорном ghb i, he, she, it часто используется was
  • If he was a doctor, he would be able to help.

+ If + Past Simple/Continuous, would/wouldn't + bare infinitive

• I would always sort the rubbish if I had a lot of time.
• I would buy this book if I had money.
• If I worked in a shop, I would have a discount on buying goods.
• If Alex wasn't working tomorrow, he would be able to come to my party.
• If I worked harder, I would have a better job.
• If I worked in a shop, I would have a discount for buying goods.

- If + S + didn't(wasn't etc) + V(-ing), S + wouldn't + V

• If I didn't have a lot of money, I wouldn't buy a big house on the Mediterranean coast.
• If I didn't know Allie, I wouldn't have a supportive friend.
• If I wasn't working right now, I would help you.
• If I didn't work in a shop, I wouldn't have a company discount.
• If Ethan wasn't having a shower, he would come to the phone.
• If Alex wasn't working tomorrow, he would be able to come to my party.

If + Past Tense, might or could + infinitive

• If I had more money, I might start my own business.
• Annie could travel on her own if she was older.

?

• main part
  • Would + S + V
• if-part
  • if + S + V2/ed?
• Would you go to Antarctica if you wanted to see penguins?

You can use "were" as a form of "to be" for he/she/it in the if-part.

• If he was/were my son, I would like him to be an environmental scientist.

You can change the order of the sentence parts; use a comma if the if clause is at the beginning of the sentence.

• If I was/were in Egypt, I would need to drink a lot of water because of hot weather.
• I would need to drink a lot of water because of hot weather if I was/were in Egypt.

Third conditional

Использование

• Используется для того чтобы сказать о воображаемой(не реалистичной) или гипотетической ситуации в прошлом.
  • We might have missed our train if we hadn't called a taxi.
• Чтобы выразить сожаления по поводу прошлого
  • If I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.
  • If I had told Jean that I loved her, she wouldn't have left me.
  • If John had overslept, he would have missed his meeting.
  • If my girlfriend hadn't been wearing a hat, I would have noticed her new haircut.
• можно использовать might/could/should вместо would
  • If I had found some investors, my company might not have gone bankrupt.
  • If you had practised for the match, you could have won it.
  • If you had done all the revision, you should have passed the exam.
• если начинаем предложение с if, ставим запятую
  • If I had the time, I would have helped you. = I would have helped you if I had the time.
  • We might have missed our train if we hadn't called a taxi.
• В разговорном Американском, иногда используется would в if части
  • US: I don't know what I would have done if you hadn't / wouldn't have helped me.
  • UK: I don't know what I would have done if you hadn't helped me.
• Мы можем инвертировать предложения, чтобы получить более эмпатичную форму
  • Had the apple not fallen on Newton's head, he might never have discovered the relationship between the motion of the moon and the motion of a body falling on the Earth.
• Другие условные структуры
  • If it hadn't been for + somebody/something
    • If it hadn't been for the doctors, Ann would have died.
  • Had it not been for + somebody/something
    • Had it not been for your advice, I would have made a very bad decision.
  • But for + somebody/something
    • Chris would never have become a doctor but for the support of his parents.
  • Suppose/Supposing
    • Suppose Gabriel had said "no", what would you have done then?

Формы

If + Past Perfect/ Past Perfect Continuous, would/wouldn't + have + V3

• If we had saved more money, we would have bought a better car.
• I would have prepared my presentation in time if I hadn't gone to the party.
• If John had overslept, he would have missed his meeting.
• If Mary hadn't overslept, she wouldn't have missed her flight.
• Jack wouldn't have failed the exam if he had been studying better.

Mixed conditional

Использование

• Мы можем смешивать Second и Third Conditional чтобы передать более точное значение в некоторых ситуациях

  • чтобы создать mixed вы берем ситуацию в прошлом(third) и соединяем и его условие и его результат с настоящим (second)
    • Для прошлых ситуаций с результатом в настоящем
      • If I hadn't bought a laptop, I wouldn't be able to work on-the-go.
      • Mary wouldn't have her own restaurant, had she not won that lottery.
      • If Joe had listened to his parents, he would have studied medicine at University. (= He didn't listen to his parents in the past, so he didn't study medicine in the past.)
      • If Joe had listened to his parents, he would be a doctor. (= He didn't listen to his parents in the past, so he isn't a doctor now.)
    • Для общих ситуаций с результатом в прошлом
      • If I wasn't so forgetful, I wouldn't have lost my phone.
      • Linda would have become a singer, if she had a good voice.
      • If I had been more assertive, I would have defended my opinion. (= I wasn't assertive at a specific point in the past, and I didn't defend my opinion.)
      • If I were more assertive, I would have defended my opinion. (= I am generally not an assertive person, so I didn't defend my opinion at some point in the past.)

• Таймлайны:

  • 1
    • past: I failed my interview
    • now: I am not working for Google
    • if i hadn't failed my interview, i would be working for google now
  • 2
    • past: i lost my pnone
    • always forgetful
    • if i wasn't forgetful, i wouldn't have lost my phone

Формы

• Past condition + present result

• If + Past Perfect, "would"/"wouldn't" + bare infinitive

  • if условие указывает на воображаемое прошлое, основная часть на воображаемое настоящее
    • If I had had my coffee in the morning, I would feel so much better now.
    • If you had followed the instructions, we wouldn't try to fix so many problems now.
    • If I hadn't bought a laptop, I wouldn't be able to work on-the-go.
    • If you had followed the instructions, we wouldn't try to fix so many problems now.
    • If Jane hadn't been careful, she would be in a hospital.

• General situating(present) + past result

• If + Past Simple/Continuous, "would"/"wouldn't" + "have" + V3

  • if условие указывает на воображаемое настоящее, основная часть указывает на воображаемое прошлое
    • I wouldn't have spilt my coffee if they served it in normal cups.
    • If Helen wasn't working on an important project, she would have spent the weekend with her friends.
    • I would not have bought a second wi-fi router if I lived in a low-income country.
    • If Helen wasn't working on an important project, she would have spent the weekend with her friends.
    • If I weren't so forgetful, I wouldn't have lost my phone.
    • If we didn't already have three dogs, we would have adopted a cat we found last month.
  • можно менять порядок следования, тогда ставится запятая

Other conditional structures

Использование

Формы

If it hadn't been for + somebody/something, would/wouldn’t + have + V3

• If it hadn't been for the head's commercial acumen, we would have lost our position in the market.

But for + somebody/something, would/wouldn’t + have + V3

• Chris would never have become a doctor but for the support of his parents.

Unreal or Hypothetical structures

I wish/if only + Past Simple/Would

Использование

• Использу есть для выражения сожалений или желаний. Мы воображаем другое настоящее или прошлое
  • if only и wish взаимозаменяемы, но if only более выразительно

Формы

wish / if only + Past Simple/Continuous

• Выражает желания о настоящем, мы хотим чтобы что-то было по другому сейча, но это сейчас не возможно
  • I wish you weren't leaving tomorrow. (But you're leaving.)
  • If only I could turn back time. (But I cannot do it.)
  • You don't know how to swim.
    • I wish I knew how to swim.
    • If only I knew how to swim.

wish / if only + Past Perfect

• Выражает сожаление о прошлом, мы хотим тим изменить что-то что уже произошло
  • I wish I had apologised properly in front of your family last night. (But I didn't do it.)
  • If only the editor hadn't mentioned the actor's divorce in the article. (But they mentioned it.)

wish / if only + would + infinitive

• Выражает раздражение или критику, мы хотем чтобы чье-то поведение изменилось или что-то произошло
  • Dan wishes Tracy would stop bringing up her personal issues during meetings.
  • If only someone would come up with a quick solution.
  • Your neighbour plays music loudly.
    • I wish my neighbour wouldn't play music so loudly.
    • If only my neighbour wouldn't play music so loudly.
• Важно Изменения должно быть возможно! Если это не возможно или не под нашим контролем, нужно использовать другую форму - wish / if only + Past Simple.
  • I wish celebrities would open up more about their struggles. (It's possible.)
  • I wish we had more free time. (But now it's impossible.)
• Важно Если субект и объект это одно и тоже лицо, нельзя использовать would, нужно использвать Past Simple
  • I wish I could hear my deceased grandfather’s voice one more time.

It's (high/about) time + clause

Использование

• Чтобы сказать что что-то происходит, но не должно было бы
• Нельзя использовать отрицательную форму в it's time

Формы

It's (high/about) time (that) + Past Simple/Continuous

• It's high time (that) you arranged an interview with her.
• It's time (that) Oliver was / were promoted to a producer.

Would rather/sooner + clause

Формы

would ('d) rather/sooner + Past Simple/Continuous

• Выражение предпочтений или дача совета в вежливой форме. Форма прошлого времени относится к настоящему и будущему
  • She'd rather you didn't talk behind her colleague's back.
  • We'd sooner you made a comeback this summer.

would ('d) rather/sooner + Past Perfect

• Выражает предпочтения или желания о прошлом
  • I'd rather you hadn't watched that documentary. Look how concerned it made you.

Causatives: "have" и "get"

• Обычно have something done, используется когда коворится когда рассказывается что мы заплатили кому-то чтобы сделать что-то для нас. Обычно речь идет о сервисах.
  • Have + object + past participle
    • I am having my car washed . (= A car wash worker is washing my car.)
• Вместо have мы можем использовать форму с get something done, это будет звучать менее формально
  • Get + object + past participle
    • Sue got her hair cut. (= A hairdresser cut Sue’s hair.)
• Конструкция have something do имеет очень похожее значение, но в этот раз мы говорим о том кто что-то сделал, кого мы попросили
  • Have + person + infinitive
    • I am having my brother wash my car. (= My brother is washing my car.)
• Конструкция get someone to do значит что вы заставили сделать действие, может через оплату, или просьбой или убеждением
  • Get + person + to + infinitive
    • Sue got her sister to cut her hair. (= She might have begged her to cut her hair.)
    • I get my brother to wash my car every week by promising to lend him the car from time to time.

Indirect Speach

Использование

• Чтобы передать то что сказал другой человек
  • tell somebody / say that + Subject + Verb
    • Нужно использовать present simple в обоих частях, если утверждение сейчас верно
      • прямая : "I know a lot about history," Bella says
      • не прямая: Bella says (that) she knows a lot about history.
    • можно опустить that в таких предлоежниях
      • прямая : "Smoking is bad for you," scientists say.
      • не прямая : Scientists say (that) smoking is bad for you.
    • нужно менять местоимения
      • прямая : "I want to change my job," Harry says.
      • не прямая : Harry tells me he wants to change his job. = Harry says that he wants to change his job
    • Внимание Используя tell + somebody а не say + to somebody и say something
      • Lizzy tells me she works for a big IT company.
      • She says to me that she wants to become a top manager.
      • She often says these words.
• Чтобы сообщить идею используюя
  • ключевые слова
    • understand
    • know
    • realise
    • explain
    • see (to see = to understand)
  • нужно использовать порядок (S+V), после
    • where
      • We don’t know where the bus stop is.
      • NOT We don’t know where is the bus stop.
    • why
      • I see why you want to move to Canada.
      • NOT I see why do you want to move to Canada.
    • when
    • how
  • Используй Present Simple в обоих частях если утверждение верно
    • Nobody understands how Roberto can speak so many languages!

Reported Speach

Использование

• Используется чтобы пересказать слова другого человека
• “I want to visit my aunt on Friday.” Mary said she wanted to visit her aunt on Friday.

Формирование

• Откатить на одно время назад когда говорим о будущем
  • Present Simple ➡ Past Simple
    • I like cats. ➡ She told me she liked cats.
    • ? Do you do it? ➝ She asked if I did it.
  • Present Continuous ➡ Past Continuous
    • I am watching a film now. ➡ He said he was watching a film at that moment.
    • ? Are you cooking dinner? ➝ She asked him if he was cooking dinner.
  • Present Perfect ➡ Past Perfect
    • We have done our homework. ➡ They said they had done their homework.
    • ? Have you been there? ➝ He asked me whether I had been there.
  • Past Simple ➡ Past Perfect
    • I was at home. ➡ He said he had been at home.
    • ? Did you do it? ➝ She asked if I had done it.
  • Present Perfect Continuous ➡ Past Perfect Continuous
    • We have been doing it for 3 hours. ➡ They told him they had been doing it for 3 hours.
    • ? Has she been working the whole day? ➝ She asked them if she had been working the whole day.
  • Past Continuous ➡ Past Perfect Continuous
    • It was raining yesterday. ➡ He said it had been raining the previous day.
    • ? Were you eating? ➝ She asked if he had been eating.
  • Will ➡ Would
    • We will save our planet! ➡ They said they would save their planet.
    • ? Will you do it? ➝ She asked whether I would do it.
  • Can ➡ Could
    • I can swim. ➡ She told us she could swim.
    • ? Can you lend me your laptop? ➝ He asked me if I could lend him my laptop.
  • May ➡ Might
    • You may come in. ➡ She said I might come in.
    • ? May I come in? ➝ She asked if she might come in.
  • Must ➡ Had to
    • You must study better if you want to have a new toy! ➡ My mum said I had to study better if I wanted to have a new toy.
    • ? Must you go there? ➝ He asked her if she had to go there.
  • Have to ➡ Had to
    • I have to be in the office at 8 tomorrow. ➡ My colleague said he had to be in the office at 8 the next day.
    • ? Do you have to meet her? ➝ He asked me if I had to meet her.
• некоторые модальные глаголы не меняются
  • might
    • it might be difficult to solve the issue. ➡ They told me it might be difficult to solve the issue.
  • could
  • would
  • should
  • ought to
• есть случаи когда время менять не надо, когда ситуация еще правдива или это факт
  • He said that he teaches fifth grade.
  • They said that iron melts at the temperature of 1538 degrees Celsius.
• не меняется время когда первая часть в настоящем
  • She says that we are meeting at 5 o’clock at the cafe.

Изменение указаний на время

• now -> then/at that time
• today -> that day
• tonight -> that night
• yesterday -> the day before/the previous day
• 2 days ago -> 2 days before
• last week -> the week before/ the previous week
• tomorrow -> the next day/ the following day
• in a week -> a week later
• next year -> the following year
• here -> there
• this -> that
• these -> those

Вопросы

• используется чтобы пересказать вопросы заданные другими
  • нужно использовать if или whether если нужно сделать general question + direct word order
    • She asked if I could meet her.
• Специальные вопросы
  • Сохраняется вопросительное слово/фраза чтобы сделать special question+ direct word
    • The teacher asked, "When did the era of space travel begin?" ➝ The teacher asked when the era of space travel had begun.
    • I asked, "How has this film got so popular here?" ➝ I asked how that film had got so popular there.
    • “What are you doing tomorrow morning?” Mark asked➝ Mark asked her what she was doing the next morning.
• так же нужно менять времена
  • They asked whether we were planning to participate in the show.

Команды

• told somebody to do" / "told somebody not to do для команд
  • "Talk to the manager." → He told me to talk to the manager
• Use "asked somebody to do" / "asked somebody not to do" для вопросов
  • "Can you show me the receipt?" → The shop assistant asked me to show the receipt.
  • "Can you not listen to loud music?" → He asked me not to listen to loud music.

Умягчители приказов и запросов

• Для вежливых вопросов использовать subject + verb
  • Can you get me a ticket? → I was wondering if you could get me a ticket.
• I was hoping you could …
  • I was hoping you could cover my shift on Friday.
• I was wondering if you could …
• Do you think you might be able to / could …
  • Do you think I might be able to leave a few minutes early?
• Would you mind + -ing …
• I thought perhaps you could/would …
• I hoped you would …
  • I hoped you would write me a letter of recommendation.

Who, which, where

Определяющие относительные предложения

• Используется для предостовления основной информации о персоне, месте, или том что это или что делает. Обычно используется сразу после существительного, которое оно описывает.
  • Используете для соединения основной и относительной части
    • who для людей
      • He is the man who lives next to me.
    • which для объектов
      • Show me the dress which you bought yesterday.
    • that для людей и объектов
      • They are the builders that I’ve hired.
    • where для мест
      • This is the village where he was born.
    • whose для указания принадлежности
      • I am the woman whose son you speak of.
    • when для времени
      • That was the year when we met.
  • Может опускаться если не является субъектом относительной части
    • She is the girl (who) I met two days ago. (The subject of the relative clause is “I”, so we can leave out “who”)
    • She is the girl who likes dancing salsa. (The subject of the relative clause is “who”, so we can’t leave it out)
  • При использовании в этом формате не ставится запятая

Не определяющие относительные предложения

• Используется для добавления расширенной информации в предложение. Когда она не обязательно и предложение останется грамматически корректным если ничего не добавлять
  • who для людей
    • Kevin, who lives next to me, has just bought a dog.
  • which для объектов
    • Lucas helped me with the luggage, which was very kind of him.
  • where для мест - She lived in New York for ten years, where she taught French.
    • whose для указания принадлежности
      • Alice, whose flat is downstairs, usually comes home very late.
    • when для времени - The last time we went to China was in April, when the weather was perfect.
    • Обязательно используется запятая
      • My sister, who works at the supermarket, is my best friend.
    • Нельзя опускать местоимения
      • Erick, whose car you’ve bought, has moved to the USA.
    • Нельзя использовать that для замены who и which
      • My parents, who are really into sport, are going to swim across the Bosphorus next year.

Get

• Для обладания или получения чего-либо
  • I got a new book yesterday.\
  • Where did you get this phone?\
• Для обозначения становится или изменения состояния
  • It's getting cold outside.\
  • She got angry after hearing the news.\
• Приезжать или добираться
  • I got home late last night.\
  • What time will we get to the airport?\
• понимать
  • Do you get what I mean?\
  • I didn'92t get the joke.\
• принести
  • Can you get me some water, please?\
  • I'll get the keys from the car.\
• заставлять или уговаривать
  • I'll get him to call you later.\
  • She got her brother to help with the project.\
• иметь шанс(opportunity)
  • I got to meet the CEO last week.\
  • Did you get to see the movie?\
• как часть фразового глагола
  • Get up '96 to rise from bed\
  • Get over '96 to recover from something\
  • Get along '96 to have a good relationship\
  • Get rid of '96 to remove or eliminate\
• Используется с прилагательными чтобы показать изменение в физическом, эмоциональном или ситуационном состоянии
  • It's getting dark (transitioning from light to dark).\
  • She got tired after working all day (changed from feeling energetic to feeling tired).\
  • I'92m getting hungry (beginning to feel hungry).\
• Чтобы показать медленное изменение со временем
  • The weather is getting warmer (it'92s gradually becoming warmer).\
  • He'92s getting better at playing the guitar (his skill is improving over time).\
• Чтобы дать акцент на результат изменения
  • I got sick after eating bad food (I became sick).\
  • They got lost on their way to the party (they became lost).\
• Некоторые пары с прилагательными, используемые чтобы показать изменение
  • Emotions/Feelings: angry, happy, upset, sad, tired, bored\
    • She got angry when she heard the news (she transitioned from calm to angry).\
  • Physical conditions: cold, warm, sick, better, worse, hungry, thirsty\
  • Other states: lost, late, ready, stuck\
    • It'92s getting late, we should go (the time is transitioning to a later hour).\
• С сравнительными прилагательными
  • better
    • Things are getting better (the situation is improving).\
  • worse
  • older
    • He'92s getting older every year (he is aging).\
• C некоторыми неформальными выражениями
  • We need to hurry, it's getting late (the time is advancing).\
  • I'92m getting nervous about the exam (my anxiety is increasing).\
• Для неформалной замены become
  • Formal: He became angry.\
  • Informal: He got angry.\

Слова связки

• Использовать эти предложения в начале истории, ставить запятую после:
  • First of all,
  • To start off with,
  • To begin with,
  • Once,
• Продолжение истории
  • Then,
  • After that,
  • Next,
  • As soon as..
  • ... but then...
• Следующие выражения используются для добавления информации
  • What's more
  • Also
• Если нужно сказать что вы на самом деле думаете, или ввестити что-то неожиданное
  • Actually,
  • To be honest,
  • To tell you the truth,
  • Believe me,
• Чтобы сменить направление дискуссии
  • By the way,
• Рассказать о чем-то неожиданном, или отличное от того что сейчас было сказано
  • ...(but) even so,
  • on the whole,
  • However,
  • Despite something/ doing something/ the fact (that)
  • Yet
• Это слово поможет ввести идею которая второй выбор или вероятность
  • Instead,
• Обобщающее утверждение
  • On the whole,
  • In general,
  • Generally,
• Чтобы добавить напряжения можно использовать:
  • Suddenly,
  • All of a sudden,
  • Unexpectedly,
• Конец истории вводится
  • Finally,
  • In the end,

Clauses of contrast, concession and purpose

• Использовать while, whilst(whailt - пока),whereas(тогда как) когда мы говорим о 2 событиях и хотим их отделить друг от друга, мы также используем while в знячении в "в то же время", в этом случае while означает тоже что и whilst, после следует существительное, герундий или местоимение
  • While some people think his comedy is funny, others find him offensive.
  • He must be about 60, whereas his wife looks about 30.
  • Whilst we were sitting down to dinner, the phone rang.
• Чтобы выразить причину, часто используются so that и in order to. Мы можем использовать "so as not to/in order not to" для того чтобы выразить негативные причины. Далее следует инфинитив, после so that, мы можем использовать модальные глаголы.
  • He trained a lot, so that he may win this competition.
  • We must save money so as not to take out a loan at the end of the month.
  • People must recycle plastic in order not to pollute the planet.
• Мы можем использовать наречия "in spite of"(Несмотря на), "despite", "however", "on the other hand", "though" чтобы выразить concession. После "In spite of" и "despite" может следовать существительное, гурундий и местоимение. Although, though, even though используются в начале или середине предложения, though может идти в конце второй фразы, что довольно распространено в разговорном английском.
  • You are not allowed to go out after 10 pm; however, if your brother is with you, then you can.
  • I like Mary as a friend, on the other hand, she is very callous.
  • In spite of the fact that her elbow ached, Mary decided not to leave the tennis court.
  • Bob paid the bill, despite existing financial constraints.
  • Bob has a lot of financial constraints. He paid the bill, though.

TODO

• in case(нужно узнать для случаев не входящих в обычные conditionals)
• real and unreal conditionals with if 1, 2 в разделе грамматики
• Conditional Clauses with Unless, As Long As, Provided, Providing
• «Whether ... or not» and «on condition that» / «as long as» / «providing that» / «provided that»
• Согласовать indirect и reported speach
• passive voices and determinating of tenses
• Questions and tenses
• perfect infinitive