diff --git a/src/Neo.Extensions/ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs b/src/Neo.Extensions/ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
index 50861083b2..091185bd02 100644
--- a/src/Neo.Extensions/ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
+++ b/src/Neo.Extensions/ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
@@ -11,13 +11,15 @@
 
 using System;
 using System.Collections.Generic;
+using System.Diagnostics.CodeAnalysis;
 
 namespace Neo.Extensions
 {
     public class ByteArrayEqualityComparer : IEqualityComparer<byte[]>
     {
-        public static readonly ByteArrayEqualityComparer Default = new();
+        public static readonly ByteArrayEqualityComparer Instance = new();
 
+        /// <inheritdoc />
         public bool Equals(byte[]? x, byte[]? y)
         {
             if (ReferenceEquals(x, y)) return true;
@@ -26,9 +28,12 @@ public bool Equals(byte[]? x, byte[]? y)
             return x.AsSpan().SequenceEqual(y.AsSpan());
         }
 
-        public int GetHashCode(byte[] obj)
-        {
-            return obj.XxHash3_32();
-        }
+        /// <inheritdoc />
+        public int GetHashCode([DisallowNull] byte[] obj) =>
+            obj.XxHash3_32();
+
+        /// <inheritdoc />
+        public int GetHashCode([DisallowNull] object obj) =>
+            obj is byte[] b ? GetHashCode(b) : 0;
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/Neo/IO/Caching/ECPointCache.cs b/src/Neo/IO/Caching/ECPointCache.cs
index f678e58edd..36db808f24 100644
--- a/src/Neo/IO/Caching/ECPointCache.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/IO/Caching/ECPointCache.cs
@@ -17,7 +17,7 @@ namespace Neo.IO.Caching
     internal class ECPointCache : FIFOCache<byte[], ECPoint>
     {
         public ECPointCache(int max_capacity)
-            : base(max_capacity, ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default)
+            : base(max_capacity, ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance)
         {
         }
 
diff --git a/src/Neo/Persistence/MemorySnapshot.cs b/src/Neo/Persistence/MemorySnapshot.cs
index 2da2ec2849..53519795dc 100644
--- a/src/Neo/Persistence/MemorySnapshot.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/Persistence/MemorySnapshot.cs
@@ -35,8 +35,8 @@ internal MemorySnapshot(MemoryStore store, ConcurrentDictionary<byte[], byte[]>
         {
             Store = store;
             _innerData = innerData;
-            _immutableData = innerData.ToImmutableDictionary(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default);
-            _writeBatch = new ConcurrentDictionary<byte[], byte[]?>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default);
+            _immutableData = innerData.ToImmutableDictionary(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance);
+            _writeBatch = new ConcurrentDictionary<byte[], byte[]?>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance);
         }
 
         public void Commit()
@@ -64,16 +64,21 @@ public void Put(byte[] key, byte[] value)
         public IEnumerable<(byte[] Key, byte[] Value)> Seek(byte[]? keyOrPrefix, SeekDirection direction = SeekDirection.Forward)
         {
             keyOrPrefix ??= [];
+
             if (direction == SeekDirection.Backward && keyOrPrefix.Length == 0) yield break;
 
             var comparer = direction == SeekDirection.Forward ? ByteArrayComparer.Default : ByteArrayComparer.Reverse;
+
             IEnumerable<KeyValuePair<byte[], byte[]>> records = _immutableData;
+
             if (keyOrPrefix.Length > 0)
                 records = records
                     .Where(p => comparer.Compare(p.Key, keyOrPrefix) >= 0);
+
             records = records.OrderBy(p => p.Key, comparer);
+
             foreach (var pair in records)
-                yield return (pair.Key[..], pair.Value[..]);
+                yield return new(pair.Key[..], pair.Value[..]);
         }
 
         public byte[]? TryGet(byte[] key)
diff --git a/src/Neo/Persistence/MemoryStore.cs b/src/Neo/Persistence/MemoryStore.cs
index 796d982569..9e0cc2702e 100644
--- a/src/Neo/Persistence/MemoryStore.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/Persistence/MemoryStore.cs
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ namespace Neo.Persistence
     /// </summary>
     public class MemoryStore : IStore
     {
-        private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<byte[], byte[]> _innerData = new(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default);
+        private readonly ConcurrentDictionary<byte[], byte[]> _innerData = new(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance);
 
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
         public void Delete(byte[] key)
@@ -51,16 +51,19 @@ public void Put(byte[] key, byte[] value)
         public IEnumerable<(byte[] Key, byte[] Value)> Seek(byte[]? keyOrPrefix, SeekDirection direction = SeekDirection.Forward)
         {
             keyOrPrefix ??= [];
-            if (direction == SeekDirection.Backward && keyOrPrefix.Length == 0) yield break;
 
+            if (direction == SeekDirection.Backward && keyOrPrefix.Length == 0) yield break;
             var comparer = direction == SeekDirection.Forward ? ByteArrayComparer.Default : ByteArrayComparer.Reverse;
+
             IEnumerable<KeyValuePair<byte[], byte[]>> records = _innerData;
+
             if (keyOrPrefix.Length > 0)
                 records = records
                     .Where(p => comparer.Compare(p.Key, keyOrPrefix) >= 0);
             records = records.OrderBy(p => p.Key, comparer);
+
             foreach (var pair in records)
-                yield return (pair.Key[..], pair.Value[..]);
+                yield return new(pair.Key[..], pair.Value[..]);
         }
 
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
diff --git a/src/Neo/SmartContract/KeyBuilder.cs b/src/Neo/SmartContract/KeyBuilder.cs
index 84e7d07183..4a6154ec63 100644
--- a/src/Neo/SmartContract/KeyBuilder.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/SmartContract/KeyBuilder.cs
@@ -11,10 +11,10 @@
 
 #nullable enable
 
+using Neo.Extensions;
 using Neo.IO;
 using System;
 using System.Buffers.Binary;
-using System.IO;
 using System.Runtime.CompilerServices;
 
 namespace Neo.SmartContract
@@ -24,7 +24,8 @@ namespace Neo.SmartContract
     /// </summary>
     public class KeyBuilder
     {
-        private readonly MemoryStream _stream;
+        private readonly Memory<byte> _cachedData;
+        private int _keyLen = 0;
 
         /// <summary>
         /// Initializes a new instance of the <see cref="KeyBuilder"/> class.
@@ -34,12 +35,11 @@ public class KeyBuilder
         /// <param name="keySizeHint">The hint of the storage key size(including the id and prefix).</param>
         public KeyBuilder(int id, byte prefix, int keySizeHint = ApplicationEngine.MaxStorageKeySize)
         {
-            Span<byte> data = stackalloc byte[sizeof(int)];
-            BinaryPrimitives.WriteInt32LittleEndian(data, id);
+            _cachedData = new byte[keySizeHint];
+            BinaryPrimitives.WriteInt32LittleEndian(_cachedData.Span, id);
 
-            _stream = new(keySizeHint);
-            _stream.Write(data);
-            _stream.WriteByte(prefix);
+            _keyLen = sizeof(int);
+            _cachedData.Span[_keyLen++] = prefix;
         }
 
         /// <summary>
@@ -50,7 +50,7 @@ public KeyBuilder(int id, byte prefix, int keySizeHint = ApplicationEngine.MaxSt
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
         public KeyBuilder Add(byte key)
         {
-            _stream.WriteByte(key);
+            _cachedData.Span[_keyLen++] = key;
             return this;
         }
 
@@ -62,7 +62,8 @@ public KeyBuilder Add(byte key)
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
         public KeyBuilder Add(ReadOnlySpan<byte> key)
         {
-            _stream.Write(key);
+            key.CopyTo(_cachedData.Span[_keyLen..]);
+            _keyLen += key.Length;
             return this;
         }
 
@@ -97,11 +98,11 @@ public KeyBuilder Add(ReadOnlySpan<byte> key)
         /// <returns>A reference to this instance after the add operation has completed.</returns>
         public KeyBuilder Add(ISerializable key)
         {
-            using (BinaryWriter writer = new(_stream, Utility.StrictUTF8, true))
-            {
-                key.Serialize(writer);
-                writer.Flush();
-            }
+            var raw = key.ToArray();
+
+            raw.CopyTo(_cachedData[_keyLen..]);
+            _keyLen += raw.Length;
+
             return this;
         }
 
@@ -167,15 +168,12 @@ public KeyBuilder AddBigEndian(ulong key)
         /// <returns>The storage key.</returns>
         public byte[] ToArray()
         {
-            using (_stream)
-            {
-                return _stream.ToArray();
-            }
+            return _cachedData[.._keyLen].ToArray();
         }
 
         public static implicit operator StorageKey(KeyBuilder builder)
         {
-            return new StorageKey(builder.ToArray());
+            return new StorageKey(builder._cachedData[..builder._keyLen].ToArray());
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageItem.cs b/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageItem.cs
index 6b291edc8d..ed7f817843 100644
--- a/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageItem.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageItem.cs
@@ -47,7 +47,7 @@ public ReadOnlyMemory<byte> Value
             }
             set
             {
-                _value = value;
+                _value = value.ToArray(); // create new memory region
                 _cache = null;
             }
         }
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ public StorageItem() { }
         /// <param name="value">The byte array value of the <see cref="StorageItem"/>.</param>
         public StorageItem(byte[] value)
         {
-            _value = value;
+            _value = value.AsMemory().ToArray(); // allocate new buffer
         }
 
         /// <summary>
@@ -99,11 +99,13 @@ public void Add(BigInteger integer)
         /// <returns>The created <see cref="StorageItem"/>.</returns>
         public StorageItem Clone()
         {
-            return new()
+            var newItem = new StorageItem
             {
-                _value = _value,
-                _cache = _cache is IInteroperable interoperable ? interoperable.Clone() : _cache
+                _value = _value.ToArray(), // allocate new buffer
+                _cache = _cache is IInteroperable interoperable ? interoperable.Clone() : _cache,
             };
+
+            return newItem;
         }
 
         public void Deserialize(ref MemoryReader reader)
@@ -117,7 +119,7 @@ public void Deserialize(ref MemoryReader reader)
         /// <param name="replica">The instance to be copied.</param>
         public void FromReplica(StorageItem replica)
         {
-            _value = replica._value;
+            _value = replica._value.ToArray(); // allocate new buffer. DONT USE INSTANCE
             if (replica._cache is IInteroperable interoperable)
             {
                 if (_cache?.GetType() == interoperable.GetType())
@@ -144,7 +146,7 @@ public void FromReplica(StorageItem replica)
                 interoperable.FromStackItem(BinarySerializer.Deserialize(_value, ExecutionEngineLimits.Default));
                 _cache = interoperable;
             }
-            _value = null;
+            _value = ReadOnlyMemory<byte>.Empty; // garbage collect the previous allocated memory space
             return (T)_cache;
         }
 
@@ -162,7 +164,7 @@ public void FromReplica(StorageItem replica)
                 interoperable.FromStackItem(BinarySerializer.Deserialize(_value, ExecutionEngineLimits.Default), verify);
                 _cache = interoperable;
             }
-            _value = null;
+            _value = ReadOnlyMemory<byte>.Empty; // garbage collect the previous allocated memory space
             return (T)_cache;
         }
 
@@ -178,7 +180,7 @@ public void Serialize(BinaryWriter writer)
         public void Set(BigInteger integer)
         {
             _cache = integer;
-            _value = null;
+            _value = ReadOnlyMemory<byte>.Empty; // garbage collect the previous allocated memory space
         }
 
         /// <summary>
@@ -188,7 +190,7 @@ public void Set(BigInteger integer)
         public void Set(IInteroperable interoperable)
         {
             _cache = interoperable;
-            _value = null;
+            _value = ReadOnlyMemory<byte>.Empty; // garbage collect the previous allocated memory space
         }
 
         public static implicit operator BigInteger(StorageItem item)
@@ -199,12 +201,12 @@ public static implicit operator BigInteger(StorageItem item)
 
         public static implicit operator StorageItem(BigInteger value)
         {
-            return new StorageItem(value);
+            return new(value);
         }
 
         public static implicit operator StorageItem(byte[] value)
         {
-            return new StorageItem(value);
+            return new(value);
         }
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageKey.cs b/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageKey.cs
index 885898c6dc..bdb053a984 100644
--- a/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageKey.cs
+++ b/src/Neo/SmartContract/StorageKey.cs
@@ -33,7 +33,7 @@ public sealed record StorageKey
         /// </summary>
         public ReadOnlyMemory<byte> Key { get; init; }
 
-        private byte[]? _cache;
+        private Memory<byte> _cache;
 
         // NOTE: StorageKey is readonly, so we can cache the hash code.
         private int _hashCode = 0;
@@ -49,9 +49,9 @@ public StorageKey()
         /// <param name="cache">The cached byte array. NOTE: It must be read-only and can be modified by the caller.</param>
         internal StorageKey(byte[] cache)
         {
-            _cache = cache;
-            Id = BinaryPrimitives.ReadInt32LittleEndian(cache);
-            Key = cache.AsMemory(sizeof(int));
+            _cache = cache.AsMemory().ToArray();    // allocate new buffer
+            Id = BinaryPrimitives.ReadInt32LittleEndian(_cache.Span);
+            Key = _cache[sizeof(int)..].ToArray();  // allocate new buffer. NOTE: DONT USE POINTERS HERE
         }
 
         /// <summary>
@@ -68,10 +68,10 @@ internal StorageKey(ReadOnlySpan<byte> cache) : this(cache.ToArray()) { }
         /// <returns>The created search prefix.</returns>
         public static byte[] CreateSearchPrefix(int id, ReadOnlySpan<byte> prefix)
         {
-            var buffer = new byte[sizeof(int) + prefix.Length];
+            Span<byte> buffer = stackalloc byte[sizeof(int) + prefix.Length];
             BinaryPrimitives.WriteInt32LittleEndian(buffer, id);
-            prefix.CopyTo(buffer.AsSpan(sizeof(int)));
-            return buffer;
+            prefix.CopyTo(buffer[sizeof(int)..]);
+            return buffer.ToArray();
         }
 
         public bool Equals(StorageKey? other)
@@ -92,22 +92,22 @@ public override int GetHashCode()
 
         public byte[] ToArray()
         {
-            if (_cache is null)
+            if (_cache is { IsEmpty: true })
             {
-                _cache = new byte[sizeof(int) + Key.Length];
-                BinaryPrimitives.WriteInt32LittleEndian(_cache, Id);
-                Key.CopyTo(_cache.AsMemory(sizeof(int)));
+                _cache = new byte[sizeof(int) + Key.Length];    // allocate new buffer
+                BinaryPrimitives.WriteInt32LittleEndian(_cache.Span, Id);
+                Key.CopyTo(_cache[sizeof(int)..]);
             }
-            return _cache;
+            return _cache.ToArray();                            // allocate new buffer
         }
 
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
         public static implicit operator StorageKey(byte[] value) => new(value);
 
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
-        public static implicit operator StorageKey(ReadOnlyMemory<byte> value) => new(value.Span);
+        public static implicit operator StorageKey(ReadOnlyMemory<byte> value) => new(value.ToArray());
 
         [MethodImpl(MethodImplOptions.AggressiveInlining)]
-        public static implicit operator StorageKey(ReadOnlySpan<byte> value) => new(value);
+        public static implicit operator StorageKey(ReadOnlySpan<byte> value) => new(value.ToArray());
     }
 }
diff --git a/src/Plugins/MPTTrie/Cryptography/MPTTrie/Trie.Proof.cs b/src/Plugins/MPTTrie/Cryptography/MPTTrie/Trie.Proof.cs
index 656ab36d78..76cb95336e 100644
--- a/src/Plugins/MPTTrie/Cryptography/MPTTrie/Trie.Proof.cs
+++ b/src/Plugins/MPTTrie/Cryptography/MPTTrie/Trie.Proof.cs
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ public bool TryGetProof(byte[] key, out HashSet<byte[]> proof)
                 throw new ArgumentException("could not be empty", nameof(key));
             if (path.Length > Node.MaxKeyLength)
                 throw new ArgumentException("exceeds limit", nameof(key));
-            proof = new HashSet<byte[]>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default);
+            proof = new HashSet<byte[]>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance);
             return GetProof(ref root, path, proof);
         }
 
diff --git a/tests/Neo.Cryptography.MPTTrie.Tests/Cryptography/MPTTrie/UT_Trie.cs b/tests/Neo.Cryptography.MPTTrie.Tests/Cryptography/MPTTrie/UT_Trie.cs
index 3383d12f3c..9963237312 100644
--- a/tests/Neo.Cryptography.MPTTrie.Tests/Cryptography/MPTTrie/UT_Trie.cs
+++ b/tests/Neo.Cryptography.MPTTrie.Tests/Cryptography/MPTTrie/UT_Trie.cs
@@ -21,7 +21,7 @@ namespace Neo.Cryptography.MPTTrie.Tests
 {
     class TestSnapshot : IStoreSnapshot
     {
-        public Dictionary<byte[], byte[]> store = new Dictionary<byte[], byte[]>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default);
+        public Dictionary<byte[], byte[]> store = new Dictionary<byte[], byte[]>(ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance);
 
         private byte[] StoreKey(byte[] key)
         {
diff --git a/tests/Neo.Extensions.Tests/UT_ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs b/tests/Neo.Extensions.Tests/UT_ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
index 81d3034081..7467f520b0 100644
--- a/tests/Neo.Extensions.Tests/UT_ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
+++ b/tests/Neo.Extensions.Tests/UT_ByteArrayEqualityComparer.cs
@@ -22,7 +22,7 @@ public void TestEqual()
         {
             var a = new byte[] { 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
             var b = new byte[] { 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
-            var check = ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default;
+            var check = ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance;
 
             Assert.IsTrue(check.Equals(a, a));
             Assert.IsTrue(check.Equals(a, b));
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ public void TestGetHashCode()
         {
             var a = new byte[] { 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
             var b = new byte[] { 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 };
-            var check = ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Default;
+            var check = ByteArrayEqualityComparer.Instance;
 
             Assert.AreEqual(check.GetHashCode(a), check.GetHashCode(b));
             Assert.AreNotEqual(check.GetHashCode(a), check.GetHashCode(b.Take(8).ToArray()));