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@article{Smagorinsky1963,
	Abstract = {An extended period numerical integration of a baroclinic primitive equation model has been made for the simulation and the study of the dynamics of the atmosphere's general circulation. The solution corresponding to external gravitational propagation is filtered by requiring the vertically integrated divergence to vanish identically. The vertical structure permits as dependent variables the horizontal wind at two internal levels and a single temperature, with the static stability entering as a parameter. The incoming radiation is a function of latitude only corresponding to the annual mean, and the outgoing radiation is taken to be a function of the local temperature. With the requirement for thermal equilibrium, the domain mean temperature is specified as a parameter. The role of condensation is taken into account only as it effectively reduces the static stability. All other external sources and sinks of heat are assumed to balance each other locally, and are thus omitted. The kinematics are that of a fluid on a sphere bounded by smooth zonal walls at the equator and at approximately 64$\,^{\circ}$latitude. The dissipative sinks are provided by: (a) surface stresses proportional through a drag coefficient to the square of the surface wind which is suitably extrapolated from above, (b) internal convective stresses proportional to the vertical wind shear, and (c) lateral diffusion of momentum and heat through an exchange coefficient which depends on the local horizontal rate of strain?a horizontal length scale entering as the governing parameter. For a given specification of the parameters, an integration for 60 days has been made from initial conditions where random temperature disturbances have been superimposed on a zonally symmetric regime which is baroclinically unstable according to linear theory. This experiment not only displays the scale selective character of baroclinic instability, yielding zonal wave number 5 to 6, but also predicts an index or energy cycle. The period of this cycle is 11 to 12 days for the first 40 days of the experiment, then lengthening to 17 days while diminishing in amplitude during the latter part. The resulting mean zonal velocity profile is in good qualitative agreement with observation, but too intense, presumably because the effective static stability parameter is taken too large. Furthermore this profile is found to be no more than 5 percent super-geostrophic poleward of the angular momentum maximum and no more than 2 percent sub-geostrophic equatorward. The total zonal angular momentum remains constant to within 2 percent irrespective of the phase of the index cycle. This balance is controlled by the surface wind distribution which agrees quite well with observation. The poleward transport is mainly accomplished by the large-scale eddies, whereas the internal vertical flux is predominantly a transfer of the earth's angular momentum by the meridional circulation. The poleward heat transport is primarily accomplished by a Hadley circulation at low latitudes but by the large-scale horizontal eddies in mid-latitudes, where a Ferrel circulation tends to compensate through an equatorward flux. This compensation at mid-latitudes by an indirect meridional circulation is also quite evident, in the potential-kinetic energy transformations. Comparison of the momentum and heat transfer with observed data when available shows reasonably good quantitative agreement. The lateral transfer of momentum and heat by the non-linear diffusion, which parametrically is supposed to simulate the action of motions of sub-grid scale, accounts for a significant portion of the total eddy transfer. Although no direct comparison with the corresponding transfer in the real atmosphere is available, intuitively our small-scale diffusion appears to play too large a role. A diagnosis is made of the transformations among the baratropic and baroclinic parts of the kinetic energy as well as the zonal mean and zonal perturbation parts of the available potential and kinetic energy. This reveals the dominant paths that the energy passes through from source to ultimate sinks and the processes responsible for these transformations. It is found that the partitioning of dissipation by the energy components may differ considerably from estimates made from observation.},
	Author = {Smagorinsky, J. },
	Date-Added = {2015-11-11 14:08:38 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-11 14:10:05 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1963)091<0099:GCEWTP>2.3.CO;2},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {99--164},
	Title = {General circulation experiments with the primitive equations},
	Volume = {91},
	Year = {1963},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1963)091%3C0099:GCEWTP%3E2.3.CO;2}}

@article{Smagorinsky1958,
	Abstract = {This paper considers the problem of numerically integrating the primitive equations corresponding to B 2-level model of the atmosphere bounded by two zonal walls on a spherical earth. Inertio-gravitational motions of the external type are filtered a priori; for such a constraint it is possible to define a stream function corresponding to the vertically integrated motions. A system of integration is developed for initial conditions which specify the shear wind vector, the specific volume, and the vorticity of the vertically integrated flow. Methods for reducing truncation error and for increasing the rate of convergence of the elliptic part are discussed. The question of boundary conditions is discussed at length. It is shown that the usual central difference methods yield independent solutions at alternate points, thus providing a source of computational instability to which the primitive equations are particularly sensitive. The solutions may be made compatible by suitable computational boundary conditions which can be deduced as sufficient conditions for insuring that the numerical solutions possess exact integrals. The application of these considerations to viscous flow is also discussed.},
	Author = {Smagorinsky, J. },
	Booktitle = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-11 14:03:12 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-11 14:05:00 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1958)086<0457:OTNIOT>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {12},
	Pages = {457--466},
	Title = {On The Numerical Integration Of The Primitive Equations of Motion for Baroclinic Flow In a Closed Region},
	Volume = {86},
	Year = {1958},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1958)086%3C0457:OTNIOT%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Lilly1962,
	Abstract = {The two-dimensional turbulent vortex generated by release of buoyant fluid from an instantaneous thermal line source has been simulated by machine numerical solution of a complete set of Eulerian gas equations. The equations included turbulent eddy exchange terms, similar to those used by Smagorinsky, which made possible the generation of computationally stable solutions qualitatively and quantitatively resembling the convective ``thermals'' studied and described by Scorer and Richards. The results of a number of numerical experiments, performed with varying computational approximations, lead to conclusions as to the importance of various sources of numerical errors and the validity of the eddy exchange formulation. The formulation leads to qualitatively good results with the resolution provided by about 1500 grid points, but it has not yet been possible to exhibit the shape-preserving stage assumed in theoretical treatments and found approximately by laboratory experiments. This is probably due in large part to the neglect of the effects of eddies in the third dimension.DOI: 10.1111/j.2153-3490.1962.tb00128.x},
	Author = {D. Lilly},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-11 13:59:37 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-11 14:00:38 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1111/j.2153–3490.1962.tb00128.x},
	Journal = {Tellus A},
	Number = {2},
	Title = {On the numerical simulation of buoyant convection},
	Volume = {14},
	Year = {1962},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.tellusa.net/index.php/tellusa/article/view/9537}}

@article{Blossey2013,
	Abstract = {Subtropical marine low cloud sensitivity to an idealized climate change is compared in six large-eddy simulation (LES) models as part of CGILS. July cloud cover is simulated at three locations over the subtropical northeast Pacific Ocean, which are typified by cold sea surface temperatures (SSTs) under well-mixed stratocumulus, cool SSTs under decoupled stratocumulus, and shallow cumulus clouds overlying warmer SSTs. The idealized climate change includes a uniform 2 K SST increase with corresponding moist-adiabatic warming aloft and subsidence changes, but no change in free-tropospheric relative humidity, surface wind speed, or CO2. For each case, realistic advective forcings and boundary conditions are generated for the control and perturbed states which each LES runs for 10 days into a quasi-steady state. For the control climate, the LESs correctly produce the expected cloud type at all three locations. With the perturbed forcings, all models simulate boundary-layer deepening due to reduced subsidence in the warmer climate, with less deepening at the warm-SST location due to regulation by precipitation. The models do not show a consistent response of liquid water path and albedo in the perturbed climate, though the majority predict cloud thickening (negative cloud feedback) at the cold-SST location and slight cloud thinning (positive cloud feedback) at the cool-SST and warm-SST locations. In perturbed climate simulations at the cold-SST location without the subsidence decrease, cloud albedo consistently decreases across the models. Thus, boundary-layer cloud feedback on climate change involves compensating thermodynamic and dynamic effects of warming and may interact with patterns of subsidence change.},
	Author = {Blossey, Peter N. and Bretherton, Christopher S. and Zhang, Minghua and Cheng, Anning and Endo, Satoshi and Heus, Thijs and Liu, Yangang and Lock, Adrian P. and de Roode, Stephan R. and Xu, Kuan-Man},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 13:22:20 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 13:22:35 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/jame.20025},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {234--258},
	Title = {Marine low cloud sensitivity to an idealized climate change: The CGILS LES intercomparison},
	Volume = {5},
	Year = {2013},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jame.20025}}
=======
@article{Lenschow1988,
	Abstract = {A combined atmospheric chemistry-meteorology experiment, the Dynamics and Chemistry of the Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS), was carried out during the summer of 1985 over the eastern Pacific Ocean using the NCAR Electra aircraft. The objectives were to 1) study the budgets of several trace reactive species in a relatively pristine, steady-state, horizontally homogeneous, well-mixed boundary layer capped by a strong inversion and 2) study the formation. maintenance and dissipation of marine stratocumulus that persists off the California coast (as well as similar regions elsewhere) in summer. We obtained both mean and turbulence measurements of meteorological variables within and above the cloud-capped boundary layer that is typical of this region. Ozone was used successfully as a tracer for estimating entrainment rate. We found, however, that horizontal variability was large enough for ozone that a correction needs to be included in the ozone budget for the horizontal displacement due to turns even though the airplane was allowed to drift with the wind. The time rate-of-change term was significant in both the ozone and radon budgets; as a result, a considerably longer time interval than the two hours used between sets of flight legs would be desirable to improve the measurement accuracy of this tern.},
	Author = {Lenschow, D. H. and Paluch, I. R. and Bandy, A. R. and Pearson, R. and Kawa, S. R. and Weaver, C. J. and Huebert, B. J. and Kay, J. G. and Thornton, D. C. and Driedger, A. R.},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-10 14:49:26 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-10 14:50:30 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(1988)069<1058:DACOMS>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Number = {9},
	Pages = {1058--1067},
	Title = {Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS) Experiment},
	Volume = {69},
	Year = {1988},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1988)069%3C1058:DACOMS%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Chow2003,
	Abstract = {Numerical errors in large-eddy simulations (LES) arise from aliasing and discretization errors, and errors in the subfilter-scale (SFS) turbulence model. Using a direct numerical simulation (DNS) dataset of stably stratified shear flow to perform a priori tests, we compare the numerical error from several finite difference schemes to the magnitude of the SFS force. This is an extension of Ghosal{\^a}€{\texttrademark}s analysis {$[$}J. Comput. Phys. 125 (1996) 187{$]$} to realistic flow fields. By evaluating different grid resolutions as well as different filter{\^a}€``grid ratios, we provide guidelines for LES: for a second-order finite difference scheme, a filter{\^a}€``grid ratio of at least four is desired; for a sixth-order Pad{\~A}{\copyright}scheme, a filter{\^a}€``grid ratio of two is sufficient.},
	Author = {Chow, Fotini Katopodes and Moin, Parviz},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-10 12:03:46 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-10 12:04:02 +0000},
	Doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9991(02)00020-7},
	Journal = {Journal of Computational Physics},
	Keywords = {LES; Large-eddy simulation; Numerical error analysis; Turbulence},
	Month = {1},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {366--380},
	Title = {A further study of numerical errors in large-eddy simulations},
	Volume = {184},
	Year = {2003},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021999102000207},
	Bdsk-Url-2 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9991(02)00020-7}}

@article{Stevens2003a,
	Abstract = {The first research flight of the second Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus field study is analysed. This case attracted our interest because it showed a consistently deepening cloud layer despite macroscopic conditions which previous work has suggested should be an indication of cloud thinning or breakup. Detailed analysis of the flight data shows that despite the cloud-top entrainment instability parameter being well beyond its critical value the cloud did indeed deepen through the night. Our best estimates show little indication of rapid changes in cloud top, while cloud base was found to be lowering at a rate of several metres per hour. This evolution, and independent measurements of trace-gas budgets, imply an entrainment rate of 0.0039$\pm$0.001 m s−1. This is compared to entrainment rates from recently proposed parametrizations (forced by the observed forcing of the cloud layer) which range from 0.002 to 0.008 m s−1. Two of the parametrizations we test reproduce the observed entrainment rates within their stated uncertainties, although subsequent tests show that one of these rules exhibits sensitivities to changes in the environmental conditions which are difficult to justify. Large-eddy simulation of the observed case was able to reproduce the macroscopic evolution of the layer, but in doing so had some difficulty in maintaining the observed mixing-line structure at cloud top. A comparison of the observed and simulated turbulent structure show these to be broadly consistent, although there is an indication that the structure of the simulated turbulence differs from the observations near the flow boundaries, particularly at cloud top. Copyright {\copyright}2003 Royal Meteorological Society},
	Author = {Stevens, Bjorn and Lenschow, Donald H. and Faloona, Ian and Moeng, C. -H. and Lilly, D. K. and Blomquist, B. and Vali, G. and Bandy, A. and Campos, T. and Gerber, H. and Haimov, S. and Morley, B. and Thornton, D.},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-05 10:19:12 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-05 10:19:35 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1256/qj.02.202},
	Journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	Keywords = {Cloud-top entrainment instability; Large-eddy simulation; Turbulent mixing},
	Number = {595},
	Pages = {3469--3493},
	Title = {On entrainment rates in nocturnal marine stratocumulus},
	Volume = {129},
	Year = {2003},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1256/qj.02.202}}

@article{Ghosal1996,
	Abstract = {The reliability of numerical simulations of turbulence depend on our ability to quantify and control discretization errors. In the classical literature on error analysis, typically, simple linear equations are studied. Estimates of errors derived from such analyses depend on the assumption that each dependent variable can be characterized by a unique amplitude and scale of spatial variation that can be normalized to unity. This assumption is not valid for strongly nonlinear problems, such as turbulence, where nonlinear interactions rapidly redistribute energy resulting in the appearance of a broad continuous spectrum of amplitudes. In such situations, the numerical error as well as the subgrid model can change with grid spacing in a complicated manner that cannot be inferred from the results of classical error analysis. In this paper, a formalism for analyzing errors in such nonlinear problems is developed in the context of finite difference approximations for the Navier{\^a}€``Stokes equations when the flow is fully turbulent. Analytical expressions for the power spectra of these errors are derived by exploiting the joint-normal approximation for turbulent velocity fields. These results are applied to large-eddy simulation of turbulence to obtain quantitative bounds on the magnitude of numerical errors. An assessment of the significance of these errors in made by comparing their magnitudes with that of the nonlinear and subgrid terms. One method of controlling the errors is suggested and its effectiveness evaluated through quantitative measures. Although explicit evaluations are presented only for large-eddy simulation, the expressions derived for the power spectra of errors are applicable to direct numerical simulation as well. },
	Author = {Sandip Ghosal},
	Date-Added = {2015-11-04 14:30:40 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-11-04 14:30:51 +0000},
	Doi = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jcph.1996.0088},
	Journal = {Journal of Computational Physics},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {187 - 206},
	Title = {An Analysis of Numerical Errors in Large-Eddy Simulations of Turbulence},
	Volume = {125},
	Year = {1996},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021999196900881},
	Bdsk-Url-2 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/jcph.1996.0088}}
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@article{Kirkpatrick2006,
	Abstract = {In this paper the dynamic Smagorinsky model originally developed for engineering flows is adapted for simulations of the cloud-topped atmospheric boundary layer in which an anelastic form of the governing equations is used. The adapted model accounts for local buoyancy sources, vertical density stratification, and poor resolution close to the surface and calculates additional model coefficients for the subgrid-scale fluxes of potential temperature and total water mixing ratio. Results obtained with the dynamic model are compared with those obtained using two nondynamic models for simulations of a nocturnal marine stratocumulus cloud deck observed during the first research flight of the second Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS-II) field experiment. The dynamic Smagorinsky model is found to give better agreement with the observations for all parameters and statistics. The dynamic model also gives improved spatial convergence and resolution independence over the nondynamic models. The good results obtained with the dynamic model appear to be due primarily to the fact that it calculates minimal subgrid-scale fluxes at the inversion. Based on other results in the literature, it is suggested that entrainment in the DYCOMS-II case is due predominantly to isolated mixing events associated with overturning internal waves. While the behavior of the dynamic model is consistent with this entrainment mechanism, a similar tendency to switch off subgrid-scale fluxes at an interface is also observed in a case in which gradient transport by small-scale eddies has been found to be important. This indicates that there may be problems associated with the application of the dynamic model close to flow interfaces. One issue here involves the plane-averaging procedure used to stabilize the model, which is not justified when the averaging plane intersects a deforming interface. More fundamental, however, is that the behavior may be due to insufficient resolution in this region of the flow. The implications of this are discussed with reference to both dynamic and nondynamic subgrid-scale models, and a new approach to turbulence modeling for large-eddy simulations is proposed.},
	Author = {Kirkpatrick, M. P. and Ackerman, A. S. and Stevens, D. E. and Mansour, N. N.},
	Booktitle = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 12:19:56 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 12:20:37 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS3651.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {526--546},
	Title = {On the Application of the Dynamic Smagorinsky Model to Large-Eddy Simulations of the Cloud-Topped Atmospheric Boundary Layer},
	Volume = {63},
	Year = {2006},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS3651.1}}

@article{Savic-Jovcic2008,
	Abstract = {Large-eddy simulations are used to explore the structure and mesoscale organization of precipitating stratocumulus. The simulations incorporate a simple, two-moment, bulk representation of microphysical processes, which by varying specified droplet concentrations allows for comparisons of simulations that do and do not develop precipitation. The boundary layer is represented over a large (25.6 km ? 25.6 km) horizontal domain using a relatively fine mesh, thereby allowing for the development of mesoscale circulations while retaining an explicit representation of cloud radiative, dynamical and microphysical interactions on scales much smaller than the dominant eddy scale. Initial conditions are based on measurements made as part of the Second Dynamics and Chemistry of the Marine Stratocumulus field study (DYCOMS-II). The simulations show that precipitation is accompanied by sharp reductions in cloudiness and changes in flow topology. Mesoscale features emerge in all of the simulations but are amplified in the presence of drizzle. A cloud albedo of near 75{\%} in the nonprecipitating simulation is reduced to less than 35{\%} in the precipitating case. The circulation transitions from a well-mixed, stationary stratocumulus layer with closed-cellular cloud planforms to a stationary cumulus-coupled layer, with incipient open-cellular cloud planforms and sustained domain-averaged surface precipitation rates near 1 mm day?1. The drizzling simulations embody many other features of observed precipitating stratocumulus, including elevated cloud tops in regions of precipitation and locally higher values of subcloud equivalent potential temperature. The latter is shown to result from the tendency for precipitating simulations to develop greater thermodynamic gradients in the subcloud layer as well as mesoscale circulations that locate regions of upward motion in the vicinity of precipitating cells.},
	Author = {Savic-Jovcic, Verica and Stevens, Bjorn},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:49:51 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:50:24 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2007JAS2456.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {1587--1605},
	Title = {The Structure and Mesoscale Organization of Precipitating Stratocumulus},
	Volume = {65},
	Year = {2008},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2007JAS2456.1}}

@article{Kurowski2009,
	Abstract = {Entrainment into the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL) is investigated by means of large-eddy simulations. Set-up of the numerical experiment is based on the research flight RF-01 in the DYCOMS-II field campaign. We focus on the stability of the flow in the cloud-top region known as the Entrainment Interface Layer (EIL). We calculate the local gradient Richardson number, Ri, at the surface of maximum static stability and at the material top of the STBL defined by a threshold of the total water content. We found that regions in which updraughts impinge upon the inversion and diverge horizontally are characterized by small values of Ri. Resulting turbulence is responsible for entrainment and formation of the EIL. Volumes of the STBL air and the free-tropospheric air from above it, mixed in proportion resulting in negative buoyancy and typically void of cloud water, form `cloud holes' -- trenches of descending cloud-free air which surround updraught areas.The entrainment process is further analyzed using a passive scalar introduced after three hours of the simulation above the layer of maximum static stability. The mixing fraction of this scalar in the air within the cloud holes falls within the range corresponding to the buoyancy reversal. Some of the negatively buoyant mixtures sinking through the cloud holes are wrapped around the edge of cloudy regions and recirculated into the cloud, which causes a local increase of the cloud-base height. The rest of the entrained free-tropospheric air sinks slowly into the STBL and leads to its gradual dilution. Copyright {\copyright} 2008 Royal Meteorological Society},
	Author = {J. Kurowski, Marcin and P. Malinowski, Szymon and W. Grabowski, Wojciech},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:45:38 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:46:00 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/qj.354},
	Journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	Number = {638},
	Pages = {77--92},
	Title = {A numerical investigation of entrainment and transport within a stratocumulus-topped boundary layer},
	Volume = {135},
	Year = {2009},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/qj.354}}

@article{Ackerman2009,
	Abstract = {Cloud water sedimentation and drizzle in a stratocumulus-topped boundary layer are the focus of an intercomparison of large-eddy simulations. The context is an idealized case study of nocturnal stratocumulus under a dry inversion, with embedded pockets of heavily drizzling open cellular convection. Results from 11 groups are used. Two models resolve the size distributions of cloud particles, and the others parameterize cloud water sedimentation and drizzle. For the ensemble of simulations with drizzle and cloud water sedimentation, the mean liquid water path (LWP) is remarkably steady and consistent with the measurements, the mean entrainment rate is at the low end of the measured range, and the ensemble-average maximum vertical wind variance is roughly half that measured. On average, precipitation at the surface and at cloud base is smaller, and the rate of precipitation evaporation greater, than measured. Including drizzle in the simulations reduces convective intensity, increases boundary layer stratification, and decreases LWP for nearly all models. Including cloud water sedimentation substantially decreases entrainment, decreases convective intensity, and increases LWP for most models. In nearly all cases, LWP responds more strongly to cloud water sedimentation than to drizzle. The omission of cloud water sedimentation in simulations is strongly discouraged, regardless of whether or not precipitation is present below cloud base.},
	Author = {Ackerman, Andrew S. and vanZanten, Margreet C. and Stevens, Bjorn and Savic-Jovcic, Verica and Bretherton, Christopher S. and Chlond, Andreas and Golaz, Jean-Christophe and Jiang, Hongli and Khairoutdinov, Marat and Krueger, Steven K. and Lewellen, David C. and Lock, Adrian and Moeng, Chin-Hoh and Nakamura, Kozo and Petters, Markus D. and Snider, Jefferson R. and Weinbrecht, Sonja and Zulauf, Mike},
	Booktitle = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:43:19 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:43:51 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2008MWR2582.1},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {1083--1110},
	Title = {Large-Eddy Simulations of a Drizzling, Stratocumulus-Topped Marine Boundary Layer},
	Volume = {137},
	Year = {2009},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008MWR2582.1}}

@article{Sandu2011,
	Abstract = {Large-eddy simulation (LES) is used to explore the role of various processes in regulating the stratocumulus to cumulus transition (SCT). Simulations are based on a composite case derived from a Lagrangian analysis of 2 yr of data from the northeastern Pacific. The simulations reproduce well the observed transition from a compact stratocumulus layer to more broken fields of cumulus, simply as a response to increasing sea surface temperatures (SSTs) along the transition. In so doing they support earlier theoretical work that argued that the SCT was a response of boundary layer circulations to increased forcing by surface latent heat fluxes. Although the basic features of the SCT imposed by the increase in SST are robust, a variety of other factors affect the detailed character of the SCT. For example, enhanced precipitation or increased downwelling longwave radiative fluxes can accelerate the reduction in cloud cover that accompanies the SCT, while a gradual decrease in the large-scale divergence can make changes in cloud cover that accompany the SCT relatively more modest. The simulations also demonstrate that the pace of the SCT is mainly set by the strength of the temperature inversion capping the initial stratocumulus-topped boundary layer.},
	Author = {Sandu, Irina and Stevens, Bjorn},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:38:44 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:39:21 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2011JAS3614.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {9},
	Pages = {1865--1881},
	Title = {On the Factors Modulating the Stratocumulus to Cumulus Transitions},
	Volume = {68},
	Year = {2011},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011JAS3614.1}}

@article{Yamaguchi2012,
	Abstract = {A thorough evaluation of the large-eddy simulation (LES) mode of the Advanced Research WRF model is performed with use of three cloudy boundary layer cases developed as LES intercomparison cases by the GEWEX Cloud System Study. Our evaluation reveals two problems that must be recognized and carefully addressed before proceeding with production runs. These are (i) sensitivity of results to the prescribed number of acoustic time steps per physical time step; and (ii) the assumption of saturation adjustment in the initial cloudy state. A temporary, but effective method of how to cope with these issues is suggested. With the proper treatment, the simulation results are comparable to the ensemble mean of the other LES models, and sometimes closer to the observational estimate than the ensemble mean. In order to ease the burden for configuration and post-processing, two new packages are developed and implemented. A detailed description of each package is presented. These packages are freely available to the public.},
	Author = {Yamaguchi, Takanobu and Feingold, Graham},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:31:00 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:31:26 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1029/2012MS000164},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Keywords = {Large eddy simulation, Advanced Research WRF, boundary layer clouds, large eddy simulation},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {n/a--n/a},
	Title = {Technical note: Large-eddy simulation of cloudy boundary layer with the Advanced Research WRF model},
	Volume = {4},
	Year = {2012},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012MS000164}}

@article{Petters2012,
	Abstract = {When stratiform-cloud-integrated radiative flux divergence (heating) is dependent on liquid water path (LWP) and droplet concentration Nd, feedbacks between cloud dynamics and this heating can exist. These feedbacks can be particularly strong for low LWP stratiform clouds, in which cloud-integrated longwave cooling is sensitive to LWP and Nd. Large-eddy simulations reveal that these radiative?dynamical feedbacks can substantially modify low LWP stratiform cloud evolution when Nd is perturbed.At night, more rapid initial evaporation of the cloud layer occurs when Nd is high, leading to more cloud breaks and lower LWP values that both result in less total cloud longwave cooling. Weakened circulations result from this reduced longwave cooling and entrainment drying is able to counteract cloud growth. When Nd is low, the cloud layer is better maintained because cloud longwave cooling is still relatively strong.During the day, the addition of shortwave warming leads to reduced LWP for all values of Nd and, consequently, further reduced longwave cooling and weakened circulations. For high Nd, these reductions are such that the cloud layer cannot be maintained. For lower Nd, the reductions are smaller and the cloud layer thins but does not dissipate.These results suggest that low LWP cloud layers are more tenuous when Nd is high and are more prone to dissipating during the day. Comparison with other studies suggests the modeled low LWP cloud response may be sensitive to the initial thermodynamic profile and model configuration.},
	Author = {Petters, Jonathan L. and Harrington, Jerry Y. and Clothiaux, Eugene E.},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:16:44 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:17:34 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-11-0169.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {1498--1512},
	Title = {Radiative--Dynamical Feedbacks in Low Liquid Water Path Stratiform Clouds},
	Volume = {69},
	Year = {2012},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-0169.1}}

@article{Ghate2014,
	Abstract = {Stratocumulus-topped boundary layers (STBLs) observed in three different regions are described in the context of their thermodynamic and radiative properties. The primary dataset consists of 131 soundings from the southeastern Pacific (SEP), 90 soundings from the island of Graciosa (GRW) in the North Atlantic, and 83 soundings from the U.S. Southern Great Plains (SGP). A new technique that makes an attempt to preserve the depths of the sublayers within an STBL is proposed for averaging the profiles of thermodynamic and radiative variables. A one-dimensional radiative transfer model known as the Rapid Radiative Transfer Model was used to compute the radiative fluxes within the STBL. The SEP STBLs were characterized by a stronger and deeper inversion, together with thicker clouds, lower free-tropospheric moisture, and higher radiative flux divergence across the cloud layer, as compared to the GRW STBLs. Compared to the STBLs over the marine locations, the STBLs over SGP had higher wind shear and a negligible (?0.41 g kg?1) jump in mixing ratio across the inversion. Despite the differences in many of the STBL thermodynamic parameters, the differences in liquid water path at the three locations were statistically insignificant. The soundings were further classified as well mixed or decoupled based on the difference between the surface and cloud-base virtual potential temperature. The decoupled STBLs were deeper than the well-mixed STBLs at all three locations. Statistically insignificant differences in surface latent heat flux (LHF) between well-mixed and decoupled STBLs suggest that parameters other than LHF are responsible for producing decoupling.},
	Author = {Ghate, Virendra P. and Miller, Mark A. and Albrecht, Bruce A. and Fairall, Christopher W.},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:08:33 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:09:33 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-13-0313.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {430--451},
	Title = {Thermodynamic and Radiative Structure of Stratocumulus-Topped Boundary Layers},
	Volume = {72},
	Year = {2014},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0313.1}}

@article{Rosch2015,
	Abstract = {Current climate models often predict fractional cloud cover on the basis of a diagnostic probability density function (PDF) describing the subgrid-scale variability of the total water specific humidity, qt, favouring schemes with limited complexity. Standard shapes are uniform or triangular PDFs, the widths of which are assumed to scale with the grid-box mean qt or the grid-box mean saturation specific humidity, qs. In this study, the qt variability is analysed from large-eddy simulations for two stratocumulus, two shallow cumulus, and one deep convective cases. We find that, in most cases, triangles are a better approximation to the simulated PDFs than uniform distributions. In 2 of the 24 slices examined, the actual distributions were so strongly skewed that the simple symmetric shapes could not capture the PDF at all. The distribution width for either shape scales acceptably well with both the mean values of qt and qs, the former being a slightly better choice. The qt variance is underestimated by the fitted PDFs, but overestimated by the existing parametrizations. While the cloud fraction is in general relatively well diagnosed from fitted or parametrized uniform or triangular PDFs, it fails to capture cases with small partial cloudiness, and in 10--30% of the cases misdiagnoses clouds in clear skies or vice versa. The results suggest choosing a parametrization with a triangular shape, where the distribution width would scale with the grid-box mean qt using a scaling factor of 0.076. However, this is subject to the caveat that the reference simulations examined here were partly for rather small domains and driven by idealised boundary conditions.},
	Author = {Rosch, J. and Heus, T. and Brueck, M. and Salzmann, M. and M{\"u}lmenst{\"a}dt, J. and Schlemmer, L. and Quaas, J.},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 11:04:39 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 11:05:00 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/qj.2515},
	Journal = {Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society},
	Number = {691},
	Pages = {2199--2205},
	Title = {Analysis of diagnostic climate model cloud parametrizations using large-eddy simulations},
	Volume = {141},
	Year = {2015},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/qj.2515}}

@article{Xu2015,
	Abstract = {Marine stratocumulus (MSc) cloud amount can decrease with an increase in the cloud-top instability parameter ?, based on the cloud-top entrainment instability (CTEI) theory. Notice that if boundary layer temperature and humidity remain the same, a given ? can correspond to different combinations of free-tropospheric temperature and humidity. By employing large-eddy simulations coupled with bin microphysics, this study investigates the characteristics of three nocturnal nonprecipitating MSc systems with the same ? but different free-tropospheric conditions. It is found that the spread of liquid water path (LWP) among the three cases is large. The LWPs of these three cases are also compared with the base case where ? is smaller. One of the three cases even has larger LWP than the base case, which is not expected by the CTEI theory. Results indicate that the thermodynamic properties of the free-tropospheric air are important. For the three cases with the same ?, cooler and moister free-tropospheric air leads to a cooler and moister boundary layer through entrainment, hence a lower cloud base. A cooler and moister free troposphere also allows the turbulent boundary layer air parcels to overshoot to a higher height, leading to a higher cloud top. Therefore, there is a spread in LWPs among systems with the same ?. The spread can be so large that sometimes systems with larger ? may have larger LWPs than systems with smaller ?. More simulations are also performed covering other free tropospheric conditions and aerosol concentrations.},
	Author = {Xu, Xukun and Xue, Huiwen},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 10:59:03 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 10:59:39 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-14-0387.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {8},
	Pages = {2853--2864},
	Title = {Impacts of Free-Tropospheric Temperature and Humidity on Nocturnal Nonprecipitating Marine Stratocumulus},
	Volume = {72},
	Year = {2015},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-14-0387.1}}

@article{vanderDussen2013,
	Abstract = {Large-eddy simulations of a Lagrangian transition from a vertically well-mixed stratocumulus-topped boundary layer to a situation in which shallow cumuli penetrate an overlying layer of thin and broken stratocumulus are compared with aircraft observations collected during the Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment. Despite the complexity of the case and the long simulation period of 40 h, the six participating state-of-the-art models skillfully and consistently represent the observed gradual deepening of the boundary layer, a negative buoyancy flux at the top of the subcloud layer and the development of a double-peaked vertical velocity variance profile. The moisture flux from the subcloud to the stratocumulus cloud layer by cumulus convection exhibits a distinct diurnal cycle. During the night the moisture flux at the stratocumulus cloud base exceeds the surface evaporation flux, causing a net drying of the subcloud layer, and vice versa during daytime. The spread in the liquid water path (LWP) among the models is rather large during the first 12 h. From additional sensitivity experiments it is demonstrated that this spread is mainly attributable to differences in the parameterized precipitation rate. The LWP differences are limited through a feedback mechanism in which enhanced drizzle fluxes result in lower entrainment rates and subsequently a reduced drying at cloud top. The spread is furthermore reduced during the day as cloud layers with a greater LWP absorb more solar radiation and hence evaporate more.},
	Author = {van der Dussen, J. J. and de Roode, S. R. and Ackerman, A. S. and Blossey, P. N. and Bretherton, C. S. and Kurowski, M. J. and Lock, A. P. and Neggers, R. A. J. and Sandu, I. and Siebesma, A. P.},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 10:54:59 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 10:55:17 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/jame.20033},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Keywords = {Clouds and cloud feedbacks, Large eddy simulation, Precipitation, Boundary layer processes, stratocumulus transition, model intercomparison, ASTEX, large-eddy simulation (LES), GASS/EUCLIPSE},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {483--499},
	Title = {The GASS/EUCLIPSE model intercomparison of the stratocumulus transition as observed during ASTEX: LES results},
	Volume = {5},
	Year = {2013},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jame.20033}}

@article{deRoode1997,
	Abstract = {Aircraft measurements made during the ?First Lagrangian? of the Atlantic Stratocumulus Transition Experiment (ASTEX) between 12 and 14 June 1992 are presented. During this Lagrangian experiment an air mass was followed that was advected southward by the mean wind. Five aircraft flights were undertaken to observe the transition of a stratocumulus cloud deck to thin and broken stratocumulus clouds penetrated by cumulus from below. From the horizontal aircraft legs the boundary layer mean structure, microphysics, turbulence structure, and entrainment were analyzed. The vertical profiles of the vertical velocity skewness are shown to illustrate the transition of a cloudy boundary layer predominantly driven by longwave radiative cooling at the cloud top to one driven mainly by convection due to an unstable surface stratification and cumulus clouds. During the last flight before the stratocumulus deck was observed to be broken and replaced by cumuli, the total water flux, the virtual potential temperature flux, and the vertical velocity variance in the stratocumulus cloud layer were found significantly larger compared with the previous flights. To analyze the cloud-top stability the mean jumps of conserved variables across the inversion were determined from porpoising runs through the cloud top. These jumps were compared with cloud-top entrainment instability criteria discussed in the literature. It is suggested that enhanced entrainment of dry air is a key mechanism in the stratocumulus?cumulus transition.},
	Author = {de Roode, Stephan R. and Duynkerke, Peter G.},
	Booktitle = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-16 10:41:18 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-16 10:42:03 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<2157:OLTOSI>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Journal1 = {J. Atmos. Sci.},
	M3 = {doi: 10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054<2157:OLTOSI>2.0.CO;2},
	Number = {17},
	Pages = {2157--2173},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {Observed Lagrangian Transition of Stratocumulus into Cumulus during ASTEX: Mean State and Turbulence Structure},
	Volume = {54},
	Year = {1997},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1997)054%3C2157:OLTOSI%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Tripoli1981,
	Abstract = {Previous studies have shown liquid water potential temperature to be an inappropriate choice for a thermodynamic variable in a deep cumulus convection model. In this study, an alternate form of this variable called ice-liquid water potential temperature (?u) is derived. Errors resulting from approximations made are discussed, and an empirical form of the ?u equation is introduced which eliminates much of this error. Potential temperature lapse rates determined in saturated updrafts and unsaturated downdrafts by various ?u approximations, an equivalent potential temperature approximation and a conventional irreversible moist thermodynamic approximation are then compared to the potential temperature lapse rate determined from a rigorously derived reversible thermodynamic energy equation. These approximations are then extended to a precipitating system where comparisons are again made. It is found that the errors using the empirical form of the ?u equation are comparable to those made using conventional irreversible moist thermodynamic approximations. The advantages of using ?u as an alternative to ? in deep convection and second-order closure models also are discussed.},
	Author = {Tripoli, Gregory J. and Cotton, William R.},
	Booktitle = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 13:23:13 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 13:23:52 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109<1094:TUOLLW>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {1094--1102},
	Title = {The Use of lce-Liquid Water Potential Temperature as a Thermodynamic Variable In Deep Atmospheric Models},
	Volume = {109},
	Year = {1981},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0493(1981)109%3C1094:TUOLLW%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Pauluis2008,
	Abstract = {The primary goal of this paper is to validate the use of the anelastic approximation for fluids with a complex equation of state such as moist air or seawater. The anelastic approximation is based on a leading-order expansion of the equations of motion for a compressible fluid in terms of density. Its application to atmospheric flows has been based on a dry framework that treats phase transitions as an external energy source. However, cloudy air is more accurately described as a two-phase fluid in which condensed water and water vapor are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Thermodynamic equilibrium reduces to three the number of state variables necessary to describe the thermodynamic state of moist air, and leads to a discontinuity in the partial derivatives of the equation of state at the saturation point. A version of the anelastic approximation for a moist atmosphere is derived here by considering the atmospheric density as a small perturbation from a moist-adiabatic reference profile, and using moist entropy and total water content as prognostic variables, with buoyancy determined from the complete nonlinear equation of state. The key finding of this paper is that this implementation of the anelastic approximation conserves energy. The total energy is equal to the sum of the kinetic energy and the thermodynamic energy. The latter is found to be equal to the sum of the enthalpy and geopotential energy of the parcel. Furthermore, the state relationships between this thermodynamic energy, entropy, and other state variables are the same as those for moist air after replacing the total pressure with the reference state pressure. This guarantees that, as long as the pressure perturbation remains small, the thermodynamic behavior of a fluid under the anelastic approximation is fully consistent with both the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Two implications of this finding are also discussed. First, it is shown that the first and second laws of thermodynamics constrain the vertically integrated buoyancy flux. This is equivalent to deriving the total work performed in a compressible atmosphere from its entropy and energy budgets. Second, it is argued that an anelastic model can be built with temperature or enthalpy as a prognostic variable instead of entropy. The rate of change for this new state variable can be obtained from energy conservation, so that such a model explicitly obeys the first law of thermodynamics. The entropy in this model is equal to the entropy of the parcel evaluated at the reference pressure, and its evolution obeys the second law of thermodynamics.},
	Author = {Pauluis, Olivier},
	Booktitle = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 13:18:47 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 13:19:28 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2007JAS2475.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {8},
	Pages = {2719--2729},
	Title = {Thermodynamic Consistency of the Anelastic Approximation for a Moist Atmosphere},
	Volume = {65},
	Year = {2008},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2007JAS2475.1}}

@article{Pressel2015,
	Abstract = {A large-eddy simulation (LES) framework is developed for simulating the dynamics of clouds and boundary layers with closed water and entropy balances. The framework is based on the anelastic equations in a formulation that remains accurate for deep convection. As prognostic variables, it uses total water and entropy, which are conserved in adiabatic and reversible processes, including reversible phase changes of water. This has numerical advantages for modeling clouds, in which reversible phase changes of water occur frequently. The equations of motion are discretized using higher-order weighted essentially nonoscillatory (WENO) discretization schemes with strong stability preserving time stepping. Numerical tests demonstrate that the WENO schemes yield simulations superior to centered schemes, even when the WENO schemes are used at coarser resolution. The framework is implemented in a new LES code written in Python and Cython, which makes the code transparent and easy to use for a wide user group.},
	Author = {Pressel, Kyle G. and Kaul, Colleen M. and Schneider, Tapio and Tan, Zhihong and Mishra, Siddhartha},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 11:56:12 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 11:56:29 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/2015MS000496},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Keywords = {Large eddy simulation, Clouds and cloud feedbacks, Boundary layer processes, Numerical approximations and analysis, Modeling, large-eddy simulation, clouds, entropy, moist thermodynamics, numerical methods},
	Title = {Large-eddy simulation in an anelastic framework with closed water and entropy balances},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2015MS000496},
	Year = {2015},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2015MS000496}}

@article{Sarve2014,
	Abstract = {In large-eddy simulation (LES), large-scale turbulent structures are explicitly resolved on the numerical grid while the dissipative turbulent eddies, typically smaller than the grid size, must be modeled. Because in the atmospheric boundary layer a large disparity of turbulent scales exists (about 9 orders of magnitude separate the largest and smallest scales), LES is considered as an essential modeling approach to capture the physics and dynamics of boundary layer clouds. A new LES solver developed at Stockholm University is presented here for the first time. The model solves for nonhydrostatic anelastic equations using high-order low-dissipative numerical schemes for the advection of scalars and momentum. A two-moment bulk microphysics scheme is implemented representing five types of hydrometeors including ice crystals and snow. The LES is evaluated based on simulations of two well-documented stratiform cloud events that were previously used for LES intercomparisons. In the first one, a marine drizzling stratocumulus observed during DYCOMS-II, the model is shown to predict bulk cloud microphysical and dynamical properties within the range of the intercomparison model results. In the second case, based on a monolayer Arctic mixed-phase cloud observed during ISDAC, we found that when using fast-falling crystals, ice quickly precipitates out of the cloud without significant growth, resulting in very low ice water paths. The simulated clouds are also found to be very sensitive to the prescribed ice crystal number concentration: multiplying the ice concentration by a factor 2.5 results in rapid cloud dissipation in the most extreme case. Overall, these results are found to be consistent with former studies of Arctic mixed-phase clouds as well as in situ measurements. More specifically, when the ice number concentration and parameterized ice habit are constrained by measurements, simulated microphysical properties such as the ice water path and ice crystal size distribution are found to agree well with observations.},
	Author = {Savre, J. and Ekman, A. M. L. and Svensson, G.},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 11:32:09 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 11:32:21 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/2013MS000292},
	Issn = {1942-2466},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Keywords = {Large eddy simulation, Boundary layer processes, Clouds and cloud feedbacks, Model calibration, large-eddy simulation, boundary layer dynamics, stratiform clouds, model development},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {630--649},
	Title = {Technical note: Introduction to MIMICA, a large-eddy simulation solver for cloudy planetary boundary layers},
	Volume = {6},
	Year = {2014},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013MS000292}}

@article{Xiao2015,
	Abstract = {Yamaguchi and Feingold (2012) note that the cloud fields in their large-eddy simulations (LESs) of marine stratocumulus using the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model exhibit a strong sensitivity to time stepping choices. In this study, we reproduce and analyze this sensitivity issue using two stratocumulus cases, one marine and one continental. Results show that (1) the sensitivity is associated with spurious motions near the moisture jump between the boundary layer and the free atmosphere, and (2) these spurious motions appear to arise from neglecting small variations in water vapor mixing ratio (qv) in the pressure gradient calculation in the acoustic sub-stepping portion of the integration procedure. We show that this issue is remedied in the WRF dynamical core by replacing the prognostic equation for the potential temperature θ with one for the moist potential temperature θm=θ(1 + 1.61qv), which allows consistent treatment of moisture in the calculation of pressure during the acoustic sub-steps. With this modification, the spurious motions and the sensitivity to the time stepping settings (i.e., the dynamic time step length and number of acoustic sub-steps) are eliminated in both of the example stratocumulus cases. This modification improves the applicability of WRF for LES applications, and possibly other models using similar dynamical core formulations, and also permits the use of longer time steps than in the original code. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.},
	Author = {Xiao, Heng and Endo, Satoshi and Wong, May and Skamarock, William C. and Klemp, Joseph B. and Fast, Jerome D. and Gustafson, William I. and Vogelmann, Andrew M. and Wang, Hailong and Liu, Yangang and Lin, Wuyin},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 11:26:57 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 11:27:39 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1002/2015MS000532},
	Issn = {1942-2466},
	Journal = {Journal of Advances in Modeling Earth Systems},
	Keywords = {WRF, LES, time-split integration, dynamic core, compressible system, cloudy boundary layer},
	Pages = {n/a--n/a},
	Title = {Modifications to WRF's dynamical core to improve the treatment of moisture for large-eddy simulations},
	Year = {2015},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2015MS000532}}

@article{Chlond2000,
	Author = {Chlond, Andreas and Wolkau, Andreas},
	Booktitle = {Boundary-Layer Meteorology},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 08:51:27 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 08:52:21 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1023/A:1002438701638},
	Journal = {Boundary-Layer Meteorology},
	Keywords = {Large-eddy simulation; Stratocumulus; Parametric uncertainty analysis; Drizzle},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {31-55},
	Title = {Large-Eddy Simulation Of A Nocturnal Stratocumulus-Topped Marine Atmospheric Boundary Layer: An Uncertainty Analysis},
	Volume = {95},
	Year = {2000},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A%3A1002438701638},
	Bdsk-Url-2 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1002438701638}}

@article{Yamaguchi2011,
	Abstract = {The relative importance, for cloud-top entrainment, of the cooling rates due to longwave radiation, evaporation, and mixing was assessed through analysis of the results produced by a Lagrangian parcel-tracking model (LPTM) incorporated into a large-eddy simulation model. The LPTM predicts each parcel?s trajectory over time, using the resolved velocity simulated by the host model. An LPTM makes it possible to identify entrained parcels; this is almost impossible to do in an observational study.A nocturnal stratocumulus cloud was simulated over 4h using a 5-m horizontal grid spacing and a 2.5-m vertical grid spacing. At the start of the last hour of the simulation, over 40 million parcels were placed near the top of the inversion layer and then tracked. Parcel histories were analyzed to identify entrained parcels.Entrainment occurs in cloud holes, which occur in dry regions of sinking air. Entrainment into the mixed layer is regulated by buoyancy, which requires parcels to be precooled in the inversion layer, prior to entrainment. A mixing fraction analysis was used to separate the cooling due to longwave radiation, evaporation, and mixing. Results show that radiative and evaporative cooling are of comparable importance, but that mixing is by far the dominant cooling mechanism. The radiative cooling rate is strongly inhomogeneous, and only weak radiative cooling is found in regions of entrainment. Therefore, the entrained parcels experience less than the horizontal-mean radiative cooling. Although radiative cooling maintains the boundary layer turbulence, its direct effect on buoyancy of entrained parcels is modest.},
	Author = {Yamaguchi, Takanobu and Randall, David A},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-14 08:49:32 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-14 08:50:24 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-11-080.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {3},
	Pages = {1118--1136},
	Title = {Cooling of Entrained Parcels in a Large-Eddy Simulation},
	Volume = {69},
	Year = {2011},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-11-080.1}}

@article{Sato2015,
	Abstract = {This study investigated the impact of several cloud microphysical schemes on the trade wind cumulus in the large eddy simulation model. To highlight the differences due to the cloud microphysical component, we developed a fully compressible large eddy simulation model, which excluded the implicit scheme and approximations as much as possible. The three microphysical schemes, the one-moment bulk, two-moment bulk, and spectral bin schemes were used for sensitivity experiments in which the other components were fixed. Our new large eddy simulation model using a spectral bin scheme successfully reproduced trade wind cumuli, and reliable model performance was confirmed. Results of the sensitivity experiments indicated that precipitation simulated by the one-moment bulk scheme started earlier, and its total amount was larger than that of the other models. By contrast, precipitation simulated by the two-moment scheme started late, and its total amount was small. These results support those of a previous study. The analyses revealed that the expression of two processes, (1) the generation of cloud particles and (2) the conversion from small droplets to raindrops, were crucial to the results. The fast conversion from cloud to rain and the large amount of newly generated cloud particles at the cloud base led to evaporative cooling and subsequent stabilization in the sub-cloud layer. The latent heat released at higher layers by the condensation of cloud particles resulted in the development of the boundary layer top height.},
	Author = {Sato, Yousuke and Nishizawa, Seiya and Yashiro, Hisashi and Miyamoto, Yoshiaki and Kajikawa, Yoshiyuki and Tomita, Hirofumi},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-02 15:46:28 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-02 15:48:01 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1186/s40645-015-0053-6},
	Journal = {Progress in Earth and Planetary Science},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {1--16},
	Title = {Impacts of cloud microphysics on trade wind cumulus: which cloud microphysics processes contribute to the diversity in a large eddy simulation?},
	Volume = {2},
	Year = {2015},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s40645-015-0053-6}}

@article{Matheou2011,
	Abstract = {The present study considers the impact of various choices pertaining to the numerical solution of the governing equations on large-eddy simulation (LES) prediction and the association of these choices with flow physics. These include the effect of dissipative versus nondissipative advection discretizations, different implementations of the constant-coefficient Smagorinsky subgrid-scale model, and grid resolution. Simulations corresponding to the trade wind precipitating shallow cumulus composite case of the Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO) field experiment were carried out. Global boundary layer quantities such as cloud cover, liquid water path, surface precipitation rate, power spectra, and the overall convection structure were used to compare the effects of different discretization implementations. The different discretization implementations were found to exert a significant impact on the LES prediction even for the cases where the process of precipitation was not included. Increasing numerical dissipation decreases cloud cover and surface precipitation rates. For nonprecipitating cases, grid convergence is achieved for grid spacings of 20 m. Cloud cover was found to be particularly sensitive, exhibiting variations between different resolution runs even when the mean liquid water profile had converged.},
	Author = {Matheou, Georgios and Chung, Daniel and Nuijens, Louise and Stevens, Bjorn and Teixeira, Joao},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-02 15:21:06 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-02 15:23:30 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2011MWR3599.1},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {9},
	Pages = {2918--2939},
	Title = {On the Fidelity of Large-Eddy Simulation of Shallow Precipitating Cumulus Convection},
	Volume = {139},
	Year = {2011},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2011MWR3599.1}}

@article{Matheou2014,
	Abstract = {The buoyancy-adjusted stretched-vortex subgrid-scale (SGS) model is assessed for a number of large-eddy simulations (LESs) corresponding to diverse atmospheric boundary layer conditions. The cases considered are free convection, a moderately stable boundary layer {$[$}first Global Energy and Water Exchanges (GEWEX) Atmospheric Boundary Layer Study (GABLS){$]$} case, shallow cumulus {$[$}Barbados Oceanographic and Meteorological Experiment (BOMEX){$]$}, shallow precipitating cumulus {$[$}Rain in Cumulus over the Ocean (RICO){$]$} and nocturnal stratocumulus {$[$}Second Dynamics and Chemistry of the Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS-II) field study RF01{$]$}. An identical LES setup, including advection discretization and SGS model parameters, is used for all cases, which is a stringent test on the ability of LES to accurately capture diverse conditions without any flow-adjustable parameters. The LES predictions agree well with observations and previously reported model results. A grid-resolution convergence study is carried out, and for all cases the mean profiles exhibit good grid-resolution independence, even for resolutions that are typically considered coarse. Second-order statistics, for example, variances, converge at finer resolutions compared to domain means. The simulations show that 90{\%} of the turbulent kinetic energy (at each level) must be resolved to obtain sufficiently converged mean profiles. This empirical convergence criterion can be used as a guide in designing future LES runs.},
	Author = {Matheou, Georgios and Chung, Daniel},
	Date-Added = {2015-10-02 14:47:06 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-10-02 14:48:18 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS-D-13-0306.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {12},
	Pages = {4439--4460},
	Title = {Large-Eddy Simulation of Stratified Turbulence. Part II: Application of the Stretched-Vortex Model to the Atmospheric Boundary Layer},
	Volume = {71},
	Year = {2014},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-13-0306.1}}

@article{Slingo1990,
	Abstract = {Various mechanisms have been suggested whereby clouds might take part in or initiate climate change, including changes in cloud amounts, liquid-water paths and droplet sizes1--11. Previous studies of the sensitivity of the Earth's radiation budget to cloud liquid-water path and droplet size were made with one-dimensional or even simpler models1--6,12,13, which cannot represent the real cloud distribution. Here I present the results of a study that uses a three-dimensional general circulation model, which should give more reliable estimates. The top-of-atmosphere radiative forcing by doubled carbdn dioxide concentrations can be balanced by modest relative increases of ~15--20% in the amount of low clouds and 20-35% in liquid-water path, and by decreases of 15--20% in mean drop radius (depending on the version of the model). This indicates that a minimum relative accuracy of ~5% is needed, both to simulate these quantities in climate models and to estimate climate response by monitoring them over extended periods from satellite platforms.},
	Author = {Slingo, A.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-27 16:30:30 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-27 16:31:41 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1038/343049a0},
	Journal = {Nature},
	Month = {01},
	Number = {6253},
	Pages = {49--51},
	Title = {Sensitivity of the Earth's radiation budget to changes in low clouds},
	Volume = {343},
	Year = {1990},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/343049a0}}

@article{Randall1984,
	Author = {Randall, D. A. and Coakley, J. A. and Lenschow, D. H. and Fairall, C. W. and Kropfli, R. A.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-27 16:23:55 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-27 16:24:48 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(1984)065<1290:OFROSM>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Number = {12},
	Pages = {1290--1301},
	Title = {Outlook for Research on Subtropical Marine Stratification Clouds},
	Volume = {65},
	Year = {1984},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1984)065%3C1290:OFROSM%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Hartmann1980,
	Abstract = {Daily observations of albedo and outgoing terrestrial radiation derived from NOAA Scanning Radiometer measurements are used to relate cloudiness variations to regional features of the general circulation and to estimate the relative importance of the albedo and infrared effects of clouds on the net radiation balance of the earth on a regional basis. The results indicate that there are clear relationships between the variability in outgoing IR and features of the atmospheric circulation, which appear to be linked to changes in cloudiness. A method requiring only measurements of planetary albedo and total outgoing IR is devised to evaluate the relative importance of the albedo and IR effects of the current distribution of cloud for the net radiation balance of the earth. The results obtained from this method suggest that globally the effect on the radiation balance of the high albedo of clouds is two or more times greater than the effect of clouds in reducing outgoing IR, so that an increase in the fractional area of the current distribution of cloud would tend to cool the earth. In addition, very large geographical variations in the radiative effects of cloud are displayed and related to circulation features.},
	Author = {Hartmann, Dennis L. and Short, David A.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-23 14:02:35 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 14:03:23 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037<1233:OTUOER>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {6},
	Pages = {1233--1250},
	Title = {On the Use of Earth Radiation Budget Statistics for Studies of Clouds and Climate},
	Volume = {37},
	Year = {1980},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1980)037%3C1233:OTUOER%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Albrecht1988,
	Abstract = {During June and July 1987, a major collaborative experiment (part of The First ISCCP {$[$}International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project{$]$} Regional Experiment (FIRE) took place off the coast of California to study the extensive fields of stratocumulus clouds that are a persistent feature of subtropical marine boundary layers. For the first time, measurements were made on both the regional scale and on the detailed local scale to permit the widest possible interpretation of the mean, turbulent, microphysical, radiative, and chemical characteristics of stratocumulus, together with the interactions among these quantities that am believed to he important in controlling the structure and evolution of these clouds. Multiple aircraft were used to make detailed, in situ measurements and to provide a bridge between the microscale and features seen from satellites. Ground-based remote-sensing systems on San Nicolas Island captured the time evolution of the boundary-.layer structure during the three-week duration of the experiment, and probes flown from tethered balloons were used to measure turbulence at several levels simultaneously, and to collect cloud-microphysical data and cloud-radiative data. Excellent cloud conditions were present throughout the experiment, although the data show that even this relatively simple cloud system displays fairly complicated structures on a variety of scales. Overall, the operational goals of the experiment were satisfied and preliminary results lock very encouraging. The data collected should provide the observational base needed to increase our understanding of how stratocumulus clouds are generated, maintained, and dissipated, and thus provide for better parameterizations in large-scale numerical models and improved methods for retrieving cloud properties by satellite.},
	Author = {Albrecht, Bruce A. and Randall, David A. and Nicholls, Stephen},
	Booktitle = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-23 13:39:21 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:30 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(1988)069<0618:OOMSCD>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Number = {6},
	Pages = {618--626},
	Title = {Observations of Marine Stratocumulus Clouds During FIRE},
	Volume = {69},
	Year = {1988},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1988)069%3C0618:OOMSCD%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Moeng2000,
	Abstract = {The large eddy simulation technique is used to search for key factors in determining the entrainment rate, cloud fraction, and liquid water path in the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL), with the goal of developing simple schemes of calculating these important quantities in climate models. In this study an entrainment rate formula is proposed where the entrainment rate is determined by four variables?total jump of the liquid water potential temperature across the entrainment zone, surface heat flux, net radiative flux away from the top of the STBL, and liquid water path. This study also shows that buoyancy reversal, measured here as the ratio between the equivalent potential temperature jump and the total moisture jump across the cloud top, plays a major role in reducing the simulated cloud amount, both cloud fraction and liquid water path. For cases where no buoyancy reversal occurs, the simulated cloud fraction remains 100{\%} and the liquid water path depends solely on the cloud height. This study raises an interesting feature about what controls the entrainment rate of the STBL. The two cases with a larger surface heat flux studied here show that the net impact of surface heating on the entrainment rate could be negligible if surface heating also leads to enhanced cloud-top evaporation; enhanced evaporation then results in smaller cloud amount and hence smaller radiative forcing for entrainment. Since larger surface heat flux always significantly increases the layer-averaged buoyancy flux and the turbulence intensity, the entrainment rate of the STBL for a given inversion strength is therefore not always directly proportional to the layer-averaged buoyancy flux or to the turbulence intensity.},
	Author = {Moeng, Chin-Hoh},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-23 12:46:57 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:56 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057<3627:ERCFAL>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {21},
	Pages = {3627--3643},
	Title = {Entrainment Rate, Cloud Fraction, and Liquid Water Path of PBL Stratocumulus Clouds},
	Volume = {57},
	Year = {2000},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2000)057%3C3627:ERCFAL%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Moeng2005,
	Abstract = {Various locally defined (not horizontal mean) interfaces between the stratocumulus-topped PBL and the free atmosphere are investigated using a fine-resolution large-eddy simulation with a vertical grid spacing of about 4 m. The local cloud-top height is found to be always below the height where the maximum gradient of the local sounding occurs, and the maximum-gradient height is always below the interface where PBL air can reach via turbulent motions. The distances between these local interfaces are of significant amount, a few tens of meters on average. Air between the cloud-top and maximum-gradient interfaces is fully turbulent, unsaturated, but rather moist. Air between the maximum-gradient and turbulent-mixing interfaces consists of turbulent motions that are intermittent in space and time. The simulated flow shows no clearly defined interface that separates cloudy, turbulent air mass from clear, nonturbulent air above, even locally.},
	Author = {Moeng, C-H. and Stevens, B. and Sullivan, P. P.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-23 12:38:59 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 14:00:29 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JAS3470.1},
	Journal = {Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences},
	Number = {7},
	Pages = {2626--2631},
	Title = {Where is the Interface of the Stratocumulus-Topped PBL?},
	Volume = {62},
	Year = {2005},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JAS3470.1}}

@article{Moeng1996,
	Abstract = {This paper reports an intercomparison study of a stratocumulus-topped planetary boundary layer (PBL) generated from ten 3D large eddy simulation (LES) codes and four 2D cloud-resolving models (CRMs). These models vary in the numerics, the parameterizations of the subgrid-scale (SGS) turbulence and condensation processes, and the calculation of longwave radiative cooling. Cloud-top radiative cooling is often the major source of buoyant production of turbulent kinetic energy in the stratocumulus-topped PBL. An idealized nocturnal stratocumulus case was selected for this study. It featured a statistically horizontally homogeneous and nearly solid cloud deck with no drizzle, no solar radiation, little wind shear, and little surface heating. Results of the two-hour simulations showed that the overall cloud structure, including cloud-top height, cloud fraction, and the vertical distributions of many turbulence statistics, compared well among all LESs despite the code variations. However, the entrainment rate was found to differ significantly among the simulations. Among the model uncertainties due to numerics, SGS turbulence, SGS condensation, and radiation, none could be identified to explain such differences. Therefore, a follow-up study will focus on simulating the entrainment process. The liquid water mixing ratio profiles also varied significantly among the simulators; these profiles are sensitive to the algorithm used for computing the saturation mixing ratio. Despite the obvious differences in eddy structure in two- and three-dimensional simulations, the cloud structure predicted by the 2D CRMs was similar to that obtained by the 3D LESs, even though the momentum fluxes, the vertical and horizontal velocity valances, and the turbulence kinetic energy profiles predicted by the 2D CRMs all differ significantly from those of the LESs.},
	Author = {Moeng, C-H. and Cotton, W. R. and Stevens, B. and Bretherton, C. and Rand, H. A. and Chlond, A. and Khairoutdinov, M. and Krueger, S. and Lewellen, W. S. and MacVean, M. K. and Pasquier, J. R. M. and Siebesma, A. P. and Sykes, R. I.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-23 12:30:13 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:18 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077<0261:SOASTP>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Number = {2},
	Pages = {261--278},
	Title = {Simulation of a Stratocumulus-Topped Planetary Boundary Layer: Intercomparison among Different Numerical Codes},
	Volume = {77},
	Year = {1996},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(1996)077%3C0261:SOASTP%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Kalmus2014,
	Abstract = {The authors estimate summer mean boundary layer water and energy budgets along a northeast Pacific transect from 35$\,^{\circ}$to 15$\,^{\circ}$N, which includes the transition from marine stratocumulus to trade cumulus clouds. Observational data is used from three A-Train satellites, Aqua, CloudSat, and the Cloud?Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations (CALIPSO); data derived from GPS signals intercepted by microsatellites of the Constellation Observing System for Meteorology, Ionosphere, and Climate (COSMIC); and the container-ship-based Marine Atmospheric Radiation Measurement Program (ARM) Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment Cloud System Study/Working Group on Numerical Experimentation (GCSS/WGNE) Pacific Cross-Section Intercomparison (GPCI) Investigation of Clouds (MAGIC) campaign. These are unique satellite and shipborne observations providing the first global-scale observations of light precipitation, new vertically resolved radiation budget products derived from the active sensors, and well-sampled radiosonde data near the transect. In addition to the observations, the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) Interim Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) fields are utilized to estimate the budgets. Both budgets approach within 3 W m?2 averaged along the transect, although uncertainty estimates from the study are much larger than this residual. A mean entrainment rate along the transect of mm s?1 is also estimated. A gradual transition is observed in the climatological mean from the stratocumulus regime to the cumulus regime characterized by an increase in boundary layer height, latent heat flux, rain, and the horizontal advection of dry air and a decrease in entrainment of warm dry air.},
	Author = {Kalmus, Peter and Lebsock, Matthew and Teixeira, Jo{\~a}o},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 13:43:34 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:39 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00242.1},
	Journal = {Journal of Climate},
	Number = {24},
	Pages = {9155--9170},
	Title = {Observational Boundary Layer Energy and Water Budgets of the Stratocumulus-to-Cumulus Transition},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00242.1},
	Volume = {27},
	Year = {2014},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JCLI-D-14-00242.1}}

@article{Stevens2005,
	Abstract = {Data from the first research flight (RF01) of the second Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS-II) field study are used to evaluate the fidelity with which large-eddy simulations (LESs) can represent the turbulent structure of stratocumulus-topped boundary layers. The initial data and forcings for this case placed it in an interesting part of parameter space, near the boundary where cloud-top mixing is thought to render the cloud layer unstable on the one hand, or tending toward a decoupled structure on the other hand. The basis of this evaluation consists of sixteen 4-h simulations from 10 modeling centers over grids whose vertical spacing was 5 m at the cloud-top interface and whose horizontal spacing was 35 m. Extensive sensitivity studies of both the configuration of the case and the numerical setup also enhanced the analysis. Overall it was found that (i) if efforts are made to reduce spurious mixing at cloud top, either by refining the vertical grid or limiting the effects of the subgrid model in this region, then the observed turbulent and thermodynamic structure of the layer can be reproduced with some fidelity; (ii) the base, or native configuration of most simulations greatly overestimated mixing at cloud top, tending toward a decoupled layer in which cloud liquid water path and turbulent intensities were grossly underestimated; (iii) the sensitivity of the simulations to the representation of mixing at cloud top is, to a certain extent, amplified by particulars of this case. Overall the results suggest that the use of LESs to map out the behavior of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer in this interesting region of parameter space requires a more compelling representation of processes at cloud top. In the absence of significant leaps in the understanding of subgrid-scale (SGS) physics, such a representation can only be achieved by a significant refinement in resolution?a refinement that, while conceivable given existing resources, is probably still beyond the reach of most centers.},
	Author = {Stevens, Bjorn and Moeng, Chin-Hoh and Ackerman, Andrew S. and Bretherton, Christopher S. and Chlond, Andreas and de Roode, Stephan and Edwards, James and Golaz, Jean-Christophe and Jiang, Hongli and Khairoutdinov, Marat and Kirkpatrick, Michael P. and Lewellen, David C. and Lock, Adrian and M{\"u}ller, Frank and Stevens, David E. and Whelan, Eoin and Zhu, Ping},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 13:39:33 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:49 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/MWR2930.1},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {6},
	Pages = {1443--1462},
	Title = {Evaluation of Large-Eddy Simulations via Observations of Nocturnal Marine Stratocumulus},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/MWR2930.1},
	Volume = {133},
	Year = {2005},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/MWR2930.1}}

@article{Stephens1991,
	Abstract = {This paper describes an observational study of the relationship between the cloudy sky components of the Earth's radiation budget (ERB) and space/time coincident observations of the sea surface temperature, microwave-derived cloud liquid water and cloud cover. The study uses two ERB data sets; Nimbus 7 narrow field-of-view, broadband scanning radiometer data from June 1979 to May 1980 and the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment broadband scanning data from March 1985 to February 1986. Cloud fluxes are derived from the ERB fluxes and estimates of the clear sky fluxes are described in a related paper. A new method that extends the cloud forcing analysis of ERB data is also introduced to estimate the cloud albedo. The zonally and seasonally averaged cloud flux components of the ERB are within 6 W m−2 for the two data sets. The general gross features of the global distributions of these fluxes also reproduce those reported in recent studies with the largest differences in mid-to-high latitude regions characterized by persistent cloud cover where the estimation of Nimbus 7 clear sky fluxes is suspect. A quantitative assessment of the impact of clouds on the greenhouse effect is given in terms of the greenhouse parameter introduced in a related study. This impact is significant, especially for deep convective clouds that form over the warmest waters of the oceans. It is also shown how the greenhouse effect of clouds increases as the liquid water path (LWP) of clouds increases in a manner analogous to that observed for water vapor. This increase is in direct contrast to many recent model studies of cloud feedback that ignore this influence. Cloud albedo data are grouped in categories corresponding to ranges of solar zenith angle. Albedos and longwave fluxes for the latitudinal ranges of these categories suggest that brighter, colder clouds exist over tropical land masses in comparison to tropical oceanic regions and vice versa for middle and high latitudes. While microphysical effects cannot be ruled out as an explanation, the general reciprocal change of albedo and longwave flux support the assertion that these differences originate from gross macrophysical differences of clouds. The albedo of clouds and the relationships between the cloud albedo and LWP are also shown to be significantly different for midlatitude oceanic clouds compared to clouds over tropical oceans. The cloud albedo differences are substantial and cannot be explained simply in terms of cloud amount effects. Based on comparison with theory, it is unlikely that realistic differences in the microphysics of clouds are large enough to explain the observations. An explanation for these differences in terms of gross macroscopic effects is proposed. The major conclusion of this study is that the largest, and hence most important, observed influence of cloud on the ERB is more consistent with macrophysical properties of clouds as opposed to microphysical properties, which have received much more attention in recent literature.},
	Author = {Stephens, Graeme L. and Greenwald, Thomas J.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 13:35:18 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 13:35:45 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1029/91JD00972},
	Isbn = {2156-2202},
	Journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	Number = {D8},
	Pages = {15325--15340},
	Title = {The Earth's radiation budget and its relation to atmospheric hydrology: 2. Observations of cloud effects},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91JD00972},
	Volume = {96},
	Year = {1991},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/91JD00972}}

@article{Hartmann1992,
	Abstract = {The role of fractional area coverage by cloud types in the energy balance of the earth is investigated through joint use of International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) C1 cloud data and Earth Radiation Budget Experiment (ERBE) broadband energy flux data for the one-year period March 1985 through February 1986. Multiple linear regression is used to relate the radiation budget data to the cloud data. Comparing cloud forcing estimates obtained from the ISCCP-ERBE regression with those derived from the ERBE scene identification shows generally good agreement except over snow, in tropical convective regions, and in regions that are either nearly cloudless or always overcast. It is suggested that a substantial fraction of the disagreement in longwave cloud forcing in tropical convective regions is associated with the fact that the ERBE scene identification does not take into account variations in upper-tropospheric water vapor. On a global average basis, low clouds make the largest contribution to the net energy balance of the earth, because they cover such a large area and because their albedo effect dominates their effect on emitted thermal radiation. High, optically thick clouds can also very effectively reduce the energy balance, however, because their very high albedos overcome their low emission temperatures.},
	Author = {Hartmann, Dennis L. and Ockert-Bell, Maureen E. and Michelsen, Marc L.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 13:16:51 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 14:00:35 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<1281:TEOCTO>2.0.CO;2},
	Journal = {Journal of Climate},
	Number = {11},
	Pages = {1281--1304},
	Title = {The Effect of Cloud Type on Earth's Energy Balance: Global Analysis},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005<1281:TEOCTO>2.0.CO;2},
	Volume = {5},
	Year = {1992},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(1992)005%3C1281:TEOCTO%3E2.0.CO;2}}

@article{Wood2012,
	Abstract = {This paper reviews the current knowledge of the climatological, structural, and organizational aspects of stratocumulus clouds and the physical processes controlling them. More of Earth?s surface is covered by stratocumulus clouds than by any other cloud type making them extremely important for Earth?s energy balance, primarily through their reflection of solar radiation. They are generally thin clouds, typically occupying the upper few hundred meters of the planetary boundary layer (PBL), and they preferably occur in shallow PBLs that are readily coupled by turbulent mixing to the surface moisture supply. Thus, stratocumuli favor conditions of strong lower-tropospheric stability, large-scale subsidence, and a ready supply of surface moisture; therefore, they are common over the cooler regions of subtropical and midlatitude oceans where their coverage can exceed 50{\%} in the annual mean. Convective instability in stratocumulus clouds is driven primarily by the emission of thermal infrared radiation from near the cloud tops and the resulting turbulence circulations are enhanced by latent heating in updrafts and cooling in downdrafts. Turbulent eddies and evaporative cooling drives entrainment at the top of the stratocumulus-topped boundary layer (STBL), which is stronger than it would be in the absence of cloud, and this tends to result in a deepening of the STBL over time. Many stratocumulus clouds produce some drizzle through the collision?coalescence process, but thicker clouds drizzle more readily, which can lead to changes in the dynamics of the STBL that favor increased mesoscale variability, stratification of the STBL, and in some cases cloud breakup. Feedbacks between radiative cooling, precipitation formation, turbulence, and entrainment help to regulate stratocumulus. Although stratocumulus is arguably the most well-understood cloud type, it continues to challenge understanding. Indeed, recent field studies demonstrate that marine stratocumulus precipitate more strongly, and entrain less, than was previously thought, and display an organizational complexity much larger than previously imagined. Stratocumulus clouds break up as the STBL deepens and it becomes more difficult to maintain buoyant production of turbulence through the entire depth of the STBL.Stratocumulus cloud properties are sensitive to the concentration of aerosol particles and therefore anthropogenic pollution. For a given cloud thickness, polluted clouds tend to produce more numerous and smaller cloud droplets, greater cloud albedo, and drizzle suppression. In addition, cloud droplet size also affects the time scale for evaporation?entrainment interactions and sedimentation rate, which together with precipitation changes can affect turbulence and entrainment. Aerosols are themselves strongly modified by physical processes in stratocumuli, and these two-way interactions may be a key driver of aerosol concentrations over the remote oceans. Aerosol?stratocumulus interactions are therefore one of the most challenging frontiers in cloud?climate research. Low-cloud feedbacks are also a leading cause of uncertainty in future climate prediction because even small changes in cloud coverage and thickness have a major impact on the radiation budget. Stratocumuli remain challenging to represent in climate models since their controlling processes occur on such small scales. A better understanding of stratocumulus dynamics, particularly entrainment processes and mesoscale variability, will be required to constrain these feedbacks.},
	Author = {Wood, Robert},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 13:02:14 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 13:59:07 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/MWR-D-11-00121.1},
	Journal = {Monthly Weather Review},
	Number = {8},
	Pages = {2373--2423},
	Title = {Stratocumulus Clouds},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00121.1},
	Volume = {140},
	Year = {2012},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/MWR-D-11-00121.1}}

@article{Webb2006,
	Abstract = {Global and local feedback analysis techniques have been applied to two ensembles of mixed layer equilibrium CO2 doubling climate change experiments, from the CFMIP (Cloud Feedback Model Intercomparison Project) and QUMP (Quantifying Uncertainty in Model Predictions) projects. Neither of these new ensembles shows evidence of a statistically significant change in the ensemble mean or variance in global mean climate sensitivity when compared with the results from the mixed layer models quoted in the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC. Global mean feedback analysis of these two ensembles confirms the large contribution made by inter-model differences in cloud feedbacks to those in climate sensitivity in earlier studies; net cloud feedbacks are responsible for 66% of the inter-model variance in the total feedback in the CFMIP ensemble and 85% in the QUMP ensemble. The ensemble mean global feedback components are all statistically indistinguishable between the two ensembles, except for the clear-sky shortwave feedback which is stronger in the CFMIP ensemble. While ensemble variances of the shortwave cloud feedback and both clear-sky feedback terms are larger in CFMIP, there is considerable overlap in the cloud feedback ranges; QUMP spans 80% or more of the CFMIP ranges in longwave and shortwave cloud feedback. We introduce a local cloud feedback classification system which distinguishes different types of cloud feedbacks on the basis of the relative strengths of their longwave and shortwave components, and interpret these in terms of responses of different cloud types diagnosed by the International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project simulator. In the CFMIP ensemble, areas where low-top cloud changes constitute the largest cloud response are responsible for 59% of the contribution from cloud feedback to the variance in the total feedback. A similar figure is found for the QUMP ensemble. Areas of positive low cloud feedback (associated with reductions in low level cloud amount) contribute most to this figure in the CFMIP ensemble, while areas of negative cloud feedback (associated with increases in low level cloud amount and optical thickness) contribute most in QUMP. Classes associated with high-top cloud feedbacks are responsible for 33 and 20% of the cloud feedback contribution in CFMIP and QUMP, respectively, while classes where no particular cloud type stands out are responsible for 8 and 21%.

},
	Author = {Webb, M. J. and Senior, C. A. and Sexton, D. M. H. and Ingram, W. J. and Williams, K. D. and Ringer, M. A. and McAvaney, B. J. and Colman, R. and Soden, B. J. and Gudgel, R. and Knutson, T. and Emori, S. and Ogura, T. and Tsushima, Y. and Andronova, N. and Li, B. and Musat, I. and Bony, S. and Taylor, K. E.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:58:17 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 12:59:34 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1007/s00382-006-0111-2},
	Isbn = {0930-7575},
	Journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	Number = {1},
	Pages = {17-38},
	Title = {On the contribution of local feedback mechanisms to the range of climate sensitivity in two GCM ensembles},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0111-2},
	Volume = {27},
	Year = {2006},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-006-0111-2}}

@article{Vial2013,
	Abstract = {This study diagnoses the climate sensitivity, radiative forcing and climate feedback estimates from eleven general circulation models participating in the Fifth Phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP5), and analyzes inter-model differences. This is done by taking into account the fact that the climate response to increased carbon dioxide (CO2) is not necessarily only mediated by surface temperature changes, but can also result from fast land warming and tropospheric adjustments to the CO2 radiative forcing. By considering tropospheric adjustments to CO2 as part of the forcing rather than as feedbacks, and by using the radiative kernels approach, we decompose climate sensitivity estimates in terms of feedbacks and adjustments associated with water vapor, temperature lapse rate, surface albedo and clouds. Cloud adjustment to CO2 is, with one exception, generally positive, and is associated with a reduced strength of the cloud feedback; the multi-model mean cloud feedback is about 33 % weaker. Non-cloud adjustments associated with temperature, water vapor and albedo seem, however, to be better understood as responses to land surface warming. Separating out the tropospheric adjustments does not significantly affect the spread in climate sensitivity estimates, which primarily results from differing climate feedbacks. About 70 % of the spread stems from the cloud feedback, which remains the major source of inter-model spread in climate sensitivity, with a large contribution from the tropics. Differences in tropical cloud feedbacks between low-sensitivity and high-sensitivity models occur over a large range of dynamical regimes, but primarily arise from the regimes associated with a predominance of shallow cumulus and stratocumulus clouds. The combined water vapor plus lapse rate feedback also contributes to the spread of climate sensitivity estimates, with inter-model differences arising primarily from the relative humidity responses throughout the troposphere. Finally, this study points to a substantial role of nonlinearities in the calculation of adjustments and feedbacks for the interpretation of inter-model spread in climate sensitivity estimates. We show that in climate model simulations with large forcing (e.g., 4 × CO2), nonlinearities cannot be assumed minor nor neglected. Having said that, most results presented here are consistent with a number of previous feedback studies, despite the very different nature of the methodologies and all the uncertainties associated with them.},
	Author = {Vial, Jessica and Dufresne, Jean-Louis and Bony, Sandrine},
	Da = {2013/12/01},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:54:10 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 12:55:09 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1007/s00382-013-1725-9},
	Isbn = {0930-7575},
	Journal = {Climate Dynamics},
	Number = {11-12},
	Pages = {3339-3362},
	Title = {On the interpretation of inter-model spread in CMIP5 climate sensitivity estimates},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1725-9},
	Volume = {41},
	Year = {2013},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00382-013-1725-9}}

@article{Stevens2003,
	Abstract = {The second Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus (DYCOMS-II) field study is described. The field program consisted of nine flights in marine stratocumulus west-southwest of San Diego, California. The objective of the program was to better understand the physics and dynamics of marine stratocumulus. Toward this end special flight strategies, including predominantly nocturnal flights, were employed to optimize estimates of entrainment velocities at cloud-top, large-scale divergence within the boundary layer, drizzle processes in the cloud, cloud microstructure, and aerosol?cloud interactions. Cloud conditions during DYCOMS-II were excellent with almost every flight having uniformly overcast clouds topping a well-mixed boundary layer. Although the emphasis of the manuscript is on the goals and methodologies of DYCOMS-II, some preliminary findings are also presented?the most significant being that the cloud layers appear to entrain less and drizzle more than previous theoretical work led investigators to expect.},
	Author = {Stevens, Bjorn and Lenschow, Donald H. and Vali, Gabor and Gerber, Hermann and Bandy, A. and Blomquist, B. and Brenguier, J-L. and Bretherton, C. S. and Burnet, F. and Campos, T. and Chai, S. and Faloona, I. and Friesen, D. and Haimov, S. and Laursen, K. and Lilly, D. K. and Loehrer, S. M. and Malinowski, Szymon P. and Morley, B. and Petters, M. D. and Rogers, D. C. and Russell, L. and Savic-Jovcic, V. and Snider, J. R. and Straub, D. and Szumowski, Marcin J. and Takagi, H. and Thornton, D. C. and Tschudi, M. and Twohy, C. and Wetzel, M. and van Zanten, M. C.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:50:03 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 14:00:05 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/BAMS-84-5-579},
	Journal = {Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society},
	Month = {2015/09/22},
	Number = {5},
	Pages = {579--593},
	Title = {Dynamics and Chemistry of Marine Stratocumulus---DYCOMS-II},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-84-5-579},
	Volume = {84},
	Year = {2003},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-84-5-579}}

@article{Dufresne2008,
	Abstract = {Climate feedback analysis constitutes a useful framework for comparing the global mean surface temperature responses to an external forcing predicted by general circulation models (GCMs). Nevertheless, the contributions of the different radiative feedbacks to global warming (in equilibrium or transient conditions) and their comparison with the contribution of other processes (e.g., the ocean heat uptake) have not been quantified explicitly. Here these contributions from the classical feedback analysis framework are defined and quantified for an ensemble of 12 third phase of the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP3)/Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) coupled atmosphere?ocean GCMs. In transient simulations, the multimodel mean contributions to global warming associated with the combined water vapor?lapse-rate feedback, cloud feedback, and ocean heat uptake are comparable. However, intermodel differences in cloud feedbacks constitute by far the most primary source of spread of both equilibrium and transient climate responses simulated by GCMs. The spread associated with intermodel differences in cloud feedbacks appears to be roughly 3 times larger than that associated either with the combined water vapor?lapse-rate feedback, the ocean heat uptake, or the radiative forcing.},
	Author = {Dufresne, Jean-Louis and Bony, Sandrine},
	Booktitle = {Journal of Climate},
	Da = {2008/10/01},
	Date = {2008/10/01},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:47:05 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-23 14:00:18 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1175/2008JCLI2239.1},
	Isbn = {0894-8755},
	Journal = {Journal of Climate},
	Journal1 = {J. Climate},
	Month = {2015/09/22},
	Number = {19},
	Pages = {5135--5144},
	Publisher = {American Meteorological Society},
	Title = {An Assessment of the Primary Sources of Spread of Global Warming Estimates from Coupled Atmosphere--Ocean Models},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2239.1},
	Volume = {21},
	Year = {2008},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2008JCLI2239.1}}

@article{Cess1996,
	Abstract = {Six years ago, we compared the climate sensitivity of 19 atmospheric general circulation models and found a roughly threefold variation among the models; most of this variation was attributed to differences in the models' depictions of cloud feedback. In an update of this comparison, current models showed considerably smaller differences in net cloud feedback, with most producing modest values. There are, however, substantial differences in the feedback components, indicating that the models still have physical disagreements.},
	Author = {Cess, R. D. and Zhang, M. H. and Ingram, W. J. and Potter, G. L. and Alekseev, V. and Barker, H. W. and Cohen-Solal, E. and Colman, R. A. and Dazlich, D. A. and Del Genio, A. D. and Dix, M. R. and Dymnikov, V. and Esch, M. and Fowler, L. D. and Fraser, J. R. and Galin, V. and Gates, W. L. and Hack, J. J. and Kiehl, J. T. and Le Treut, H. and Lo, K. K. -W. and McAvaney, B. J. and Meleshko, V. P. and Morcrette, J. -J. and Randall, D. A. and Roeckner, E. and Royer, J. -F. and Schlesinger, M. E. and Sporyshev, P. V. and Timbal, B. and Volodin, E. M. and Taylor, K. E. and Wang, W. and Wetherald, R. T.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:44:28 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 12:45:14 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1029/96JD00822},
	Isbn = {2156-2202},
	Journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	Journal1 = {J. Geophys. Res.},
	Number = {D8},
	Pages = {12791--12794},
	Title = {Cloud feedback in atmospheric general circulation models: An update},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JD00822},
	Volume = {101},
	Year = {1996},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/96JD00822}}

@article{Cess1990,
	Abstract = {The need to understand differences among general circulation model projections of CO2-induced climatic change has motivated the present study, which provides an intercomparison and interpretation of climate feedback processes in 19 atmospheric general circulation models. This intercomparison uses sea surface temperature change as a surrogate for climate change. The interpretation of cloud-climate interactions is given special attention. A roughly threefold variation in one measure of global climate sensitivity is found among the 19 models. The important conclusion is that most of this variation is attributable to differences in the models' depiction of cloud feedback, a result that emphasizes the need for improvements in the treatment of clouds in these models if they are ultimately to be used as reliable climate predictors. It is further emphasized that cloud feedback is the consequence of all interacting physical and dynamical processes in a general circulation model. The result of these processes is to produce changes in temperature, moisture distribution, and clouds which are integrated into the radiative response termed cloud feedback.},
	Author = {Cess, R. D. and Potter, G. L. and Blanchet, J. P. and Boer, G. J. and Del Genio, A. D. and D{\'e}qu{\'e}, M. and Dymnikov, V. and Galin, V. and Gates, W. L. and Ghan, S. J. and Kiehl, J. T. and Lacis, A. A. and Le Treut, H. and Li, Z.-X. and Liang, X.-Z. and McAvaney, B. J. and Meleshko, V. P. and Mitchell, J. F. B. and Morcrette, J.-J. and Randall, D. A. and Rikus, L. and Roeckner, E. and Royer, J. F. and Schlese, U. and Sheinin, D. A. and Slingo, A. and Sokolov, A. P. and Taylor, K. E. and Washington, W. M. and Wetherald, R. T. and Yagai, I. and Zhang, M.-H.},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:40:33 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 13:36:18 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1029/JD095iD10p16601},
	Issn = {2156-2202},
	Journal = {Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres},
	Number = {D10},
	Pages = {16601--16615},
	Title = {Intercomparison and interpretation of climate feedback processes in 19 atmospheric general circulation models},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JD095iD10p16601},
	Volume = {95},
	Year = {1990},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/JD095iD10p16601}}

@article{Bony2005,
	Abstract = {The radiative response of tropical clouds to global warming exhibits a large spread among climate models, and this constitutes a major source of uncertainty for climate sensitivity estimates. To better interpret the origin of that uncertainty, we analyze the sensitivity of the tropical cloud radiative forcing to a change in sea surface temperature that is simulated by 15 coupled models simulating climate change and current interannual variability. We show that it is in regimes of large-scale subsidence that the model results (1) differ the most in climate change and (2) disagree the most with observations in the current climate (most models underestimate the interannual sensitivity of clouds albedo to a change in temperature). This suggests that the simulation of the sensitivity of marine boundary layer clouds to changing environmental conditions constitutes, currently, the main source of uncertainty in tropical cloud feedbacks simulated by general circulation models.},
	Author = {Bony, Sandrine and Dufresne, Jean-Louis},
	Date-Added = {2015-09-22 12:36:19 +0000},
	Date-Modified = {2015-09-22 13:36:23 +0000},
	Doi = {10.1029/2005GL023851},
	Issn = {1944-8007},
	Journal = {Geophysical Research Letters},
	Note = {L20806},
	Number = {20},
	Pages = {n/a--n/a},
	Title = {Marine boundary layer clouds at the heart of tropical cloud feedback uncertainties in climate models},
	Url = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023851},
	Volume = {32},
	Year = {2005},
	Bdsk-Url-1 = {http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005GL023851}}