Make it a markdown document Group the Information- Write subheadings for the introduction information that is useful Put in sub-sub categories if necessary
Arnobius Afer: African identity Romanization African religion before and after arrival of Christianity
Re-read notes and articles as part of doing that As I re-read make note of two kinds of references: annotated list of references that are pure information (primary source- inscription or Tertullian) Provides evidence of so and so, give reference of where it was cited to put in context Make note of footnotes that would point to useful articles
Unity and Diversification of Roman Unification for example Anywhere that it looks like further investigation is necessary
Roughing out versions of each of the subsections in step 1
No reason to quote a scholar for the assertion of a fact Things like really good phrasing, conclusions to be challenged or supported
If I find a good map make note of it
Length is however long it takes me
List of interesting topics: Sicca as a major Christian center- "most Christian" History of Romanization, creation of Africa Proconsularis Security creates opportunity for thriving literary scene? Level/degree of Romanization- multicultural identity Beliefs of Pre-Roman African religion- henotheism, Saturn, rocks, sacrifice, old gods, sacred prostitution Participation in Persecution Sources in African Christianity-Tertullian, Minucius Felix, Clement of Alexandria etc. African style? (McCracken's assertion)
Subdivisions (Think about order):
Romanization
The Romans began their dominion over north Africa with the creation of the province of Africa Proconsularis in 146 BCE. When the Romans controlled new territories, they would enact a process which modern historians refer to as "Romanization". This term describes the political and cultural dominance of the Romans over any indigenous peoples, usually through the combining of native ideals with Roman ones. This injection of Roman culture would occur throughout all facets of life, including language, religion, and architecture. In Africa, this took shape under a few different directives and imperial laws. While tribes would ostensibly keep much of their own law under the Romans, the government would manipulate the affairs of these groups by placing a praefectus gentis in charge of recruiting members of the army from the group. Romans would assign tribal lands to groups in order to formally recognize them, which would allow legal interaction between these groups and the government. While some Roman territories became "civilized" easily, many Africans resisted Roman interventions culturally and militarily. As a result, the Romans enacted deliberate importations of cultural elements such as the official cult of the empire. They built public buildings, the same as those in Rome, to make each city feel more Roman. Under Diocletian, many redistributions of the provinces occurred in order to administrate the frontiers of the province more easily. Romanization was strongest in the coastal and military areas, but not all African cities took quickly to Roman mores and government. Overall, Romano-African society was something distinct altogether from its predecessors and other parts of the Empire, exemplified by “outward symbols of civilization (art, architecture, iconography, literature, dedications, etc.) [which] exhibit, each in their own way, a search for accommodation and common meaning between the Roman state and the African society.” Romanization took hold in Africa when it was advantageous for the Africans to allow it.
At the time of Arnobius, the African population was comprised of African and Punic peoples who had married Romans as well as other immigrant groups. The native African languages of Libyan and Punic remained somewhat common in rural areas, but Latin was the language of commerce as well as scholarly pursuits. [^footnote 2]. The Romans controlled the interactions of African groups through provincial administration and local governments. The tension between African identity and Romanization was particularly prevalent in the realm of religion.
African Religion (write this section- time delineations, address: how do we know stuff about this, from whom, nature of evidence, what does it tell us, individual representative examples, limitations of evidence-like to know more about but can't or don't- weave this into the narrative about Africa- think through process of research- everything I'm telling you take with a grain of salt so that's the conclusion)
Before the arrival of Punic paganism in the 8th century BCE, there was likely a broad array of beliefs throughout north Africa. Because of the dependence on oral communication in pre-Punic times, much of the early religion of the area is lost. While there are some characteristics of the indigenous religion that permeate Africa, each village and valley had a unique set of practices and deities that were inculcated in daily life. From the modicum of evidence present, it seems that the inchoate religion had a generalized connection with animating forces of nature. With the arrival of Punic religion, a henotheistic form of paganism began to emerge with the central god Ba'al Hammon, an earth, sky, and underworld deity. Even this was an intensely localized and fragmented religion- of two accounts of major gods from the time, neither share a single deity on their list. However, there do seem to be a few elements that span the divides of pre-Roman paganism. The most important feature of the religion for these pagans was sacrifice, as it was the central way to communicate with deities and spirits. While any blood sacrifice had important powers, they believed that human blood had the power to appease the gods. A *tophet*, or "sacred site" in Carthage attests the practice of human sacrifice. At these temples of sacrifice vases of infant humans and animals were found, totalling an estimated 100 child sacrifices annually. This was a permanent and normal part of Punic culture. Tertullian affirms that this practice continued even into the Roman period (ch. 9.2).
With the arrival of Roman paganism, the Graeco-Roman gods began to merge with local deities, creating an eclectic mix of Mediterranean religions. After 146 BCE (the end of the 3rd Punic War), there is evidence of these deities gradually being mixed with aspects of other Punic or Roman gods, creating unique, localized cults. The Roman god Saturn had a significant cult in north Africa, as Saturn became conflated with the central Punic god Ba'al Hammon. This cult was particularly prominent in the province of Africa Proconsularis, and was pervasive in African practice during the Roman empire- explaining Arnobius's desire to specifically address the worship of Saturn (Book Five). In this way, many pagans continued to worship the same deities, albeit under a different name. Other prominent cults included that of Jupiter, Silvanus, Isis, and Serapis. A substitute for human sacrifice was found, as some inscriptions at *tophets* from the Roman period say "anima pro anima, sanguine pro sanguine, vita pro vita", referring to the use of sheep or lamb instead. The Romans under Augustus also attempted to encourage the worship of the official cult of the emperor, as this added legitimacy to the reign of the emperor. It seems that this cult was tenuous in Africa, as Diocletian eventually created *concilium provinciae* for the purpose of regulating and reforming this cult in public practice. In most towns, even the elites who desired to mimic Roman life created and developed local versions of the official cult of Rome. These micro-cults, along with personal ideals, created a fragmentary effect on African religion that would persist throughout the next several centuries. The hybrid of these religions would create the distinct and new branch of paganism that Arnobius would polemicize in Adversus Nationes. Until and even after Christianity's arrival, this broad array of religions persisted.
Christianity in Africa
Overall, African Christians had a somewhat different set of values from European Christians of the time. In particular, they valued individual and communal purity, the idea that "mother Church" held the saving sacraments, the truth of prophecy, dreams and visions, and the meaning behind martyrdom and sacrifice.[^footnote1] African Christianity was literalistic and legalistic in its approach to religion- the Church leaders wished to approach and solve problems in a pragmatic way. Overall, this led to an inclination towards literal and strict interpretations of scripture and morality. However, just like the indigenous African religion, these were just some of the overarching beliefs of the area. Each community had its unique set of characteristics, which explains the fact that Arnobius agrees with only some of these ideas. This overarching stereotype of African Christianity may have compelled Jerome's description of Arnobius's conversion, saying that he was led to the faith through dreams. This would be a sensible story for an African Christian- however, Arnobius decries this practice in (INSERT CITATION)
Christianity had a disruptive influence in Africa, as it brought a new set of beliefs and ideals to the a culture with ingrained religious practices.
Even before the time of Arnobius, Tertullian claimed that each city in Africa was majority Christian. [^footnote3] While this may have been an exaggeration, there is evidence that a great number of Christian bishops gathered in Carthage for a council in the year 180. These bishops would gather to discuss matters of theology and practice, but each bishop decided for himself what his community would follow. This was yet another factor influencing the fragmentary nature of Christianity at the time. It is possible that the local practices sprung up due to low numbers and high distances between each city, so when the bishops would meet, they had different perspectives on what was right for their Christians. Some of the issues that arose included determining if the Church could reconcile with those who sinned after baptism. This created divisions among the African Church, eventually leading to the violent Donatist controversy.
Sicca, the town in which Arnobius taught rhetoric, was known as a major Christian center.
Participation in Persecution
Christianity was persecuted by the Romans throughout its existence to promote uniformity and keep the *pax deorum* of the Roman Empire. As a result, African Christians were persecuted intermittently from 180-305 CE, even by the African emperor Septimius Severus who declared Christianity illegal. The evidence suggests that, while some African Christians complied with the Roman demands of sacrifice and paganism, others were staunch in the face of adversity. Many Africans still believed in "the ambient ideal of human sacrifice, whether in war or at the altar, support[ing] the Christian notion of the acceptability of offering one’s life in fidelity- but it should be noted that no motifs of human sacrifice directly color martyrdom narratives." There are many stories of martyrdoms that were publicized as *acta* to inspire other Christians. Not even the educated elite were spared, as the author Cyprian was executed in 258 for his status as a Christian. Christians also fought back against the persecution by writing apologetics of Christianity and polemics against paganism that declared the utter absurdity of traditional cult worship. The Christians felt they were morally upright in this situation, so they continued to fight against the pagan establishment.
Evidence for weakness of persecution in Africa??
What it means to be African- a multicultural identity (may need to merge with Romanization section- lots of overlap)
Understanding Arnobius's identity as an African is crucial, because the blend of Roman and African cultures created a distinct background and lens through which Arnobius viewed paganism, Christianity, and society. By the time of Arnobius, there was a sense of pride attached to the national identity of Africans. [^footnote Shaw 527] The fact that Arnobius is referred to as "Afer", a Roman cognomen denoting a relationship to Africa, shows his connection to the culture- his name itself referred to his cultural heritage. Some other famous North Africans are generally referred to by this name, including Terence. This shows the level to which this identity was valued by the inhabitants of Africa. Even those Africans who seemed "as Roman as could be" still retained this ethnic identity.
Both in spite of and because of Romanization, there arose a strong identity for Africans. Like African religion, many areas and peoples had local claims to which they were devoted. While these localized identities may have been emphasized more before the Roman governance, the encompassing African identity arose due to it. While this may seem counterintuitive, some Africans reacted against Romanization, rather creating a stronger identity for Africans "the social identity of groups is constructed out of circumstances of high-pressure factors-above all, warfare-that link diverse ethnic groups under a new single identity" pg 537. A common identity came about in order to protect Africans against the tide of Romanization. The African cults were either a resistance to Romanization, or were an attempt to mediate the cultural difference by maintaining a sense of African identity. The ethnic infighting among the Africans would not cease, but local claims became less important as a dichotomy of Romans and Africans emerged. On the other hand, many considered themselves both Roman and part of their African ethnic group, creating a blended, multicultural identity.
Arnobius’s African background also heavily influenced his scholarly pursuits. Although he was Berber, a group indigenous to North Africa, he would have spoken and read Latin. Adversus Nationes was based on Arnobius’s understanding of a few Christian works, namely Clement of Alexandria's Protrepticus, Tertullian's Apologeticum, and the Octavius of Minucius Felix. The fact that all three of these men were African shows a level of nationalism and pride for the literary pursuits of his fellow Africans, along with a level of comfort with their writing style.
[^footnote1] Jensen 265 [^footnote2] Jensen 266 [^footnote3] Jensen 266
Factual, Primary Source References w/annotation: The little material or archaeological evidence for 8th century BCE African religion suggests a generalized connection with animating forces of nature Shaw 237 Concentration of shrines and dedications to Neptune show continuity of religions Shaw 237 Annual journey to the mountain cave for sacrificing (inscription) Shaw 238 Another one in Cirta Shaw 238 7 unique African deities were named on a stele from Roman period Shaw 238 5 unique deities on a list called Dii Magifae found, proving localization of cults Shaw 239 Descriptions of sacrificial sites in OT and a tophet at Carthage, along with other sacred sites in Africa show the blood sacrifice- have vases with bones of infant humans and animals Shaw 240 Excavation at Carthage showed 3,000 burial urns and stelae, many containing the bones of infants Shaw 241 Sacrifices were described on stelae as return payment for a promise or vow Shaw 241 Tertullian says that human sacrifice continued deep into the Roman period Shaw 242 Five stelae to Saturn show that in 2nd and 3rd century CE there could be substitutes for human sacrifice, namely animals Shaw 243 Stelae show that Punic cult was practiced until 80s, when the Roman cult developed in Africa Shaw 245 Carthage was rebuilt in 30s BCE with new platforms and the major structures of the Roman state- showed establishment of cults of Roman deities Shaw 245 Cyprian says that Christians were compelled to sacrifice in front of Capitolium of Carthage in first state Persecutions Shaw 246 Tertullian says of the Capitolium "You overlords of the Roman empire, in public and on high, on the very summit of the city [sc. Carthage], there you preside to issue your judgments, openly to investigate matters and to examine us in public" Shaw 246 Epigraphical texts show different order for pantheon of gods, with Saturn on top for the Africans Shaw 247 Apuleius's Metamorphoses describe the revelation of Isis- a novelty and poster child for the cosmopolitanism of Africa Shaw 247 Evidence of Cult of Saturn is concentrated in mid-Maghrib, with lists of worshippers containing no upper-class people, and portraits of Saturn show him as an overall central deity with defining rule of nature and the household Shaw 249 Quodvultdeus says that there is an ornate temple of Caelestis at Carthage Shaw 249 Votive altars to worship of imperial cult are Augustan era and show not much widespread practice, though there are altars and sacrifical scenes showing emperor's goodwill Shaw, 250 Evidence for concilium provinciae? Shaw 251 Dionysus depictions everywhere, continuation of Shadrapha cult Shaw 252 Funerary monument with the mixing of Punic and Roman cultures and religious beliefs created an amalgam poem with confusions Shaw 253 Tabellae defixionis shows that rural areas relied on ritual experts with magical powers, also noted by the Lambaesis Shaw 254 Lack of evidence aside from dedicatory inscriptions and altars shows niche cults of Serapis and Mithras Shaw 257 Official record of trial held in Carthage in 180 shows that Christianity had spread to Africa Jensen 266 Tertullian claimed that Christians constituted a majority in every city Jensen 266 Cyprian talks about the councils of Carthage being well attended Jensen 266 Tertullian claims that Christians could be found throughout socioeconomic realm Jensen 268 Tertullian denounces heretical groups, including a group undergoing deviant ritual practices at the behest of a magic woman Jensen 269 Caecilian elected bishop of Carthage in 311 Jensen 272 Earliest literary reference to churhc buildings is 4th c Tilley 381 Catacombs testify early Christianity in Africa Tilley 382 Capitoline temples were dedicated to Roman pantheon in Punic areas Tilley 385 Cultic remnants show sacrifice and libation Tilley 385 Oldest African writing (180) mentions Christians Tilley 386 Traditores were given libelli which certified compliance Tilley 389 Upper class members were not spared (Cyp. Ep. 80) Tilley 390 Literary evidence of cult of martyrs Tilley 391 Different theological viewpoints have evidence of African writers Tilley 393-4 Tertullian and Apuleius both used ethnic identity for their own advantages in writing and court proceeding Shaw 531 285 named African ethnic groups listed by Ptolemy Shaw 534 Epigraphical text reveals Roman citizenship as operable along with local ethnic organization Shaw 535 Gaetuli and Numidians are referenced as barbarians and upper class by Tertullian Shaw 536
Footnotes that could point to useful articles
Turcan. "Cults of the Roman Empire"
Cadotte. "Neptune Africain" chapter called "Romanisation des dieux"
Leglay, "Saturn africain, Monuments"
MacMullen. "Paganism in the Roman Empire, fig. p. 6"
MacMullen, Romanization 43.5
Moderan, Yves 2008 Des maures aux Berberes: itdentite et ethnicite...
How much of the evidence stuff do I include? Places and times where I need to show my work: Instead now I need to show some evidence that we aren't making it up- places with outlandish claims need evidence, but the backup is not necessary in obvious places. Walking reader through steps of conclusion is more helpful than conclusion itself sometimes. For strengthening argument, not defending necessarily. Not a whole lot that we know about north Africa, only talk about certain stuff
Print Books: Brill's New Pauly Article on Africa and Sicca
The First Ethiopians by Van Wyk Smith
The North African Province by Warmington
The case against the Pagans McCracken
Religion and Authority in Roman Carthage from Augustus to Constantine by Rives (Like 3rd map for our intro)
Christianity in Roman Africa by Burns and Jensen