topicslist.txt

Topic 0: 

The Valves of Kirkring and Solitary Glands are found in this organ, as are the Central Lacteal portions of lymphatic vessels. Alpha-defensins secreted by the Paneth cells in this organ help defend the stem cells found within it, and Goblet cells make up the crypts of Lieberkuhn here. Protective alkaline substances are secreted by Brunner's glands in this organ, while other tissues found in this organ include Peyer's Patches. Bile and pancreatic juices from the ampulla of Vater enter this structure through the Sphincter of Oddi, and finger-like projections in this organ are called villi. For 10 points, name this organ containing the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, found between the stomach and the large intestine.

One structure in this organ is lined by podocytes and features capillaries with fenestrations not spanned by diaphragms that are large enough for anything smaller than a red blood cell to enter. The granular cells of its juxtaglomerular apparatus secrete a hormone that forms a system with angiotensin and aldosterone. Its functional units contain a glomerulus surrounded by Bowman's capsule, and that aforementioned proximal tubule is part of the loop of Henle. Located under a pair of glands that secrete cortisol and epinephrine, for 10 points, name these organs that contain many nephrons and are responsible for producing urine.

Mesengial cells in this structure couple it to the surrounding blood vessels. One section of this structure is the macula densa, which secretes prostaglandins that trigger hormone release from JG cells. One section of it is surrounded by the vasa recta, and another section of it upregulates aquaporin-2 in response to vasopressin. The vascular pole is the site where the glomerulus enters Bowman's capsule in this structure. Consisting of both proximal and distal convoluted tubules, the Loop of Henle, and the collecting duct, for 10 points, name this functional unit of the kidney.

This organ is divided into the scala media, scala tympani, and scala vestibuli (ves-TIB-you-lee). Vibrations on the basilar membrane in this structure are transduced into electrical stimuli by this organ's inner hair cells, which are located in the Organ of Corti (CORE-tee). This snail-shaped organ is the primary sense organ of hearing. For 10 points, name this organ also known as the "inner ear."

The ANP hormone produced in this organ inhibits the production of sodium, while the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome is a malfunction of this organ. Impulses from the Bundle of His are carried by Purkinje fibers in this organ, and the aorta originates here. The mitral valve separates the left atrium and ventricle of, for 10 points, which organ made of cardiac muscle that pumps blood through the body?

This structures Mller glial cells can differentiate into multipotent progenitor cells when the cells around them are damaged. This structure is connected to the ciliary body by the ora serrata. Lateral inhibition in this structure is caused by horizontal and amacrine cells, which carry stimuli to multiple bipolar and ganglion cells. The choroid layer separates it from the sclera, and the [*] foveal pit is located at the center of the macula of this structure. It has a blind spot where it connects to the optic nerve and contains photorecepting rod and cone cells. For 10 points, name this layer of tissue on the back of the eye that collects optical signals to send to the brain.

The Macula Densa attaches one structure in this organ to another. Another structure found in this organ has mesangial, epithelia, and endothelial cells, and that structure contains a basement membrane of capillaries. That structure in this organ is surrounded by the Bowman's Capsule, and other structures in this organ include the proximal and distal tubules, the Loop of Henle, and the Glomerulus. Ureters leave these organs, and the adrenal glands can be found on top of these organs. Nephrons are the functional units of, for 10 points, these organs responsible for cleaning out the blood.

In developing embryos, part of this structure forms from Rathke's (RATH-keez) pouch, and it is located in a depression known as the sella turcica (SELL-uh TUR-kih-kuh), which is found in the sphenoid (SFEE-noyd) bone. Herring bodies are found in the axons that connect this entity to the hypothalamus. It regulates the body's water content by releasing vasopressin (VAZ-oh-PRESS-in) from its posterior lobe. For 10 points, name this "master gland" that releases prolactin and sits at the base of the brain.

One region within these structures contains modified smooth muscle cells called mesangial cells and octopus-like epithelial cells with many extensions, known as podocytes. Mammals and birds possess a deeply extending type of these structures which are surrounded by long capillaries called the vasa recta. A- and B-type natriuretic peptides act on a tightly packed region of cells within these structures, the (*) macula densa. Extra aquaporins are inserted into the distal portion of these structures in response to vasopressin, increasing their resorption of water. Renin is secreted by their juxtaglomerular apparatus. For 10 points, identify these structures comprised of subunits including the proximal and distal tubules, the glomerulus, and Bowman's capsule, the smallest functional unit of the kidney.

This organ is affected by Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. In crocodilians, the foramen of Panizza joins two of its parts, and in infants, it features a foramen ovale that later closes. Its papillary muscles tighten the chordae tendineae, and two of its structures are sometimes called auricles. The QRS complex results from the action of this organs bundle of His, Purkinje fibers, and SA node. It is located in a two-walled sac called the pericardium and its electrical potential can be measured with an EKG. In humans, it consists of two atria and two ventricles. For 10 points, name this muscular organ that pumps blood.

Topic 1: 

This pathway can be regulated through magnesium ion efflux from one structure's lumen. It can also be regulated by thioredoxin, which facilitates hydrogen transfer between reduced ferredoxin and NADPH. It involves the modification of ribulose bisphosphate by the enzyme rubisco, and its penultimate step results in the formation of fructose-6-phosphate. Products generated by photosystems one and two aid in the fixation of inorganic carbon dioxide in this pathway. For 10 points, name this light-independent cycle of photosynthesis.

Rotenone can block one part of this pathway, and superoxides can erroneously form in its first and third sites. Iron-sulfur clusters act as carriers in it for the protonated form of Flavin mononucleotides, which are transferred to another protein to form semiquinone. In it, succinate is converted to fumarate prior to the formation of cytochrome c, which an eponymous oxidase alters to enable the formation of two water molecules. It ultimately involves the movement of four protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondria, thereby creating a proton gradient capable of powering the synthesis of ATP. For 10 points, name this series of complexes responsible for oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes, often abbreviated ETC.

A family of channel proteins that transport mostly this chemical and its derivatives are the EAATs. The action of molecule's dehydrogenase enzyme results in most of the ammonia eliminated by the urea cycle. PCP works by agonizing this signal molecule by mimicking NMDA, which is itself the namesake of one family of receptors for this molecule. Deamination of this compound yields the same product as the operation of isocitrate dehydrogenase on D-isocitrate; that compound, the third from citrate in the Krebs cycle, is an alpha-keto derivative of this acid. This amino acid with a carboxylic acid side chain has a name abbreviated E. For 10 points, name this compound, the principle brain excitatory neurotransmitter.

Over 90% of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis have antibodies against an enzyme that breaks
 down this compound. In the Cori cycle, this compound is created in the liver from lactate. One enzyme that
 breaks down this compound contains E1, E2, and E3 subunits and uses lipoic acid and thiamine
 pyrophosphate as cofactors. Transamination of this compound produces alanine. A namesake carboxylase
 converts this compound to oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis, and a namesake dehydrogenase converts it to
 Acetyl CoA for entrance into the Krebs Cycle. For 10 points, name this three-carbon compound, two
 molecules of which are the final products of glycolysis.

A molecule important in this process is formed when beta-oxidation breaks down fatty acids, and one step in it produces L-malate from fumarate. Beginning when oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA react, it sends succinate, FADH2, and NADH to the electron transport chain. Pyruvate from glycolysis starts this pathway that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. For 10 points, name this second stage of cellular respiration, often named for a German-born biologist.

Umezawa et al showed that the signaling of this molecule is regulated by protein phosphatase 2C. The pathway for the synthesis of this compound begins with a zeaxanthin precursor and ends with the cleavage of a C40 carotenoid into xanthoxin, which is finally oxidized to this molecule; that process of this molecule's synthesis is called the MEP pathway. Functions of this hormone include promoting gene transcription for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding and producing a-amylase in order to act against the effects of gibberellins. It also plays a major function in regulating the closure of the stomata. For 10 points, name this plant hormone that is sometimes called dormin, which is responsible for the inhibition of seed germination, fruit ripening and budding.

The protein DWARF1 encodes for a receptor of one of these hormones, while plants deficient in phytochrome B tend to overexpress these hormones or their receptors. These hormones act by stimulating the degradation of DELLA proteins, and proplastids produce and export the starting material for them. They are synthesized from (*) ent-kaurene in the apical meristem, and they cause sugars to be produced from starch by stimulating the production of alpha-amylase. Fungal infection resulting in an excess of this hormone causes bakanae, or foolish seedling disease. For 10 points, name these plant hormones that promote leaf growth and stem elongation.

The DNA in this organelle (or-guh-NELL) is inherited only from the mother. The inner membrane of this organelle contains folds known as cristae (CRISS-tay) and encloses its matrix. This organelle is the site of oxidative phosphorylation (ox-ih-DAY-tiv FOSS-for-ill-AY-shun), which occurs at the end of the electron transport chain. For 10 points, name this organelle responsible for cellular respiration, which produces ATP and thus provides energy for the cell.

A key step in the synthesis of this molecule forms a lumazine derivative with a sugar side chain. That synthesis begins with GTP and ribulose-5-phosphate. This molecule is a reactant in the step producing tigloyl Co-A in isoleucine degradation and is used in the first step of proline degradation. This molecule is also used in the step after thiolysis and before hydration in the cycle of beta oxidation of fatty acids. It makes up part of dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, the third enzyme in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and is also necessary for the production of fumarate in the TCA cycle. For 10 points, name this cofactor which transfers electrons directly to Complex II, bypassing the first proton pump in the electron transport chain, and which is derived from vitamin B2.

These structures are the primary location of DHAP acyltransferase, which plays a role in plasmalogen synthesis. Most proteins imported into this organelle require a serine lysine leucine C-terminal signal. One defect of this organelle is Zellweger syndrome. Along with mitochondria, this organelle converts fatty acids into acetyl-CoA in a process known as beta-oxidation. However, this organelle uses catalase for its most notable function. It is most abundantly found in the liver. For 10 points, name this organelle that get rids of a namesake group of compounds by breaking it into water and oxygen.

Topic 2: 

One class of these proteins contain a winged helix or forkhead box domain, while another class of these is inhibited by Rb protein and regulates the production of cyclins, called E2F. Another class of these homodimerizes after being activated by the JAK kinase and regulates the production of interferon, and are known as the STAT proteins. An example of them from yeast used in various experiments is GAL4, which binds to UAS. They operate by recruiting coactivators or histone acetyltransferases and bind to consensus sequences. Many of these proteins contain a leucine zipper or a zinc finger. Basal ones include TFIID, which binds to the TATA box, and most contain an activating domain and a DNA binding domain. For 10 points, name these proteins responsible for recruiting RNA polymerase and promote their namesake process of RNA production.

In prokaryotes, this process typically begins at the Pribnow Box, where sigma factor 70 binds. This process is inhibited by a repressor protein, which is encoded by the lacI (LACK-"I") gene in the lac operon. In eukaryotes, this process typically begins when TBP binds to the (*) TATA box, triggering a pre-initiation complex that eventually allows RNA Polymerase to bind. This process has three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. For 10 points, name this synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template, which is followed by translation.

The sarcin-ricin loop is found in the 23 Svedberg unit part of this structure. In eukaryotes, this structure has 40S and 60S subunits and is assembled in the nucleolus. P-, A-, and E- sites are locations on this organelle that respectively bind to(*) peptidyl, aminoacyl, and free tRNAs. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is distinguished by the presence of these organelles, which use peptidyl transferase to create peptide bonds linking amino acid chains. For 10 points, name this organelle that translates mRNA sequences to make proteins.

This organelle is structurally homologous to a Type III secretory system. In Gram-negative bacteria, L, P, and MS rings surround its hook and basal body. Eukaryotic ones have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules and use power from dyenin and ATP to move. Prokaryotic ones rotate like a screw. Like a similar structure, they contain an axoneme (AK-suh-neem), but they are longer than cilia. For 10 points, name these whip-like structures used by sperm cells to move.

The aminoacylated form of this molecule complexes with EF1?-GTP, and it includes both the D loop and the T?CG loop. Another loop in this molecule contains inosine, which is largely responsible for the wobble that allows this molecule to base-pair with several different codons. This molecule binds to the A site of a ribosome, where its attached amino acid is incorporated into a nascent protein. For 10 points, name this type of RNA that base-pairs with mRNA.

Gamma-tubulin (TOO-byoo-lin) is needed to activate centrosomes in this phase, which follows the G2 checkpoint. One of these phases in meiosis includes synapsis (sin-APP-sis) and the crossing over of homologous chromosomes. Asters form during this phase that sees the disappearance of the nucleolus (noo-klee-OH-luss) and the growth of spindle fibers. For 10 points, name this phase of mitosis in which chromatin condenses into chromosomes prior to metaphase.

The antibiotic erythromycin works by disrupting this organelle, which contains E, P, and A sites on its large subunit. The parts of this organelle are assembled at nucleoli (noo-klee-OH-lye), and when bound to a membrane, these create the rough ER. Codons are translated at this organelle where the tRNA and mRNA meet. For 10 points, name this organelle that is the site of protein synthesis.

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase regulates these entities' diversification in somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination. RAG-1 and RAG-2 are involved in V(D)J recombination of genes coding for them. These proteins contain Fc and Fab fragments composed of two heavy and two light chains. One of their five isotypes triggers histamine release in allergic responses. They identify foreign objects and cause agglutination. Produced by plasma B cells, they are essential to the humoral immune system. For 10 points, name these Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens.

It can infect dendritic cells via the DC-SIGN recptor and infection can be suppressed in vitro by the binding of ligands such as RANTES or SDF-1. The Tat gene produces proteins which bind to the TAR element and the binding of the RRE element to rev facilitates replication. Strains enter via the CCR5 or CXCR4 receptors and three gp41 molecules with a gp120 make up the Env cap of this virus. It consists of a capsid surrounding the p24 protein in a circular shape and it contains gag and pol genes. For 10 points, name this lentivirus which infects CD4+ helper T cells and leads to AIDS.

Two different types of these proteins are used in sandwich assays. These proteins can be further divided into classes such as opsonins and agglutinins (uh-GLUE-tin-ins). These proteins can be classified as polyclonal or monoclonal depending on the B lymphocytes they are produced by. These proteins consist of two heavy and two light chains, arranged in a Y shape, and their variable regions interact with epitopes. For 10 points, name these proteins found in the immune system, whose primary purpose is to bind to antigens.

Topic 3: 

Charette's reaction enantioselectively prepares chiral compounds of this type from allylic alcohols using the ligand dioxaborolane. One reaction creating this group requires a namesake reagent which was been variously synthesized by Emschwiller, Wittig, who used diazomethane, and Furukawa, who used an alkyl-exchange reaction involving an 1,1-di-halo-alkane. That reaction produces norcarane when the starting material is cyclohexene, and uses a copper zinc couple to add a carbene to an alkene. The bonds in this molecule can be described with sp two hybridization according to Walsh. This product of the Simmons-Smith Reaction was first predicted by Baeyer to be characterized by a high angle strain. FTP, name this cyclic alkane consisting of three carbon atoms.

One of these compounds is the starting material in the Danishefsky total synthesis of taxol. The hydroxy form of these compounds is obtained from phenyl esters in the Fries [FREEZ] rearrangement. The iodoform test gives a positive result for the methyl type of these compounds, which generally do not react with Tollens' reagent. These compounds react with Grignard reagents to form tertiary alcohols, and are obtained from the oxidation of secondary alcohols. These compounds are tautomers of enols, and their simplest example is used in nail polish remover. For 10 points, name these compounds that have two R groups bonded to a carbonyl.

This type of organic molecule is oxidized in the Swern oxidation. They can also be oxidized by Pyridinium chlorochromate, which is abbreviated PCC. Tosyl chloride converts these into tosylates, and thionyl chloride reacts with them to form alkyl chlorides. They react with carboxylic acids in the Fischer esterification. Reacting aldehydes with an organomagnesium halide reagent creates these. Sulfuric acid can be used to dehydrate these in elimination reactions governed by Zaitsev's rule. Tertiary ones are reactive with hydrogen halides in the SN1 reaction. For 10 points, name these organic compounds that have a hydroxyl group, an example of which is ethanol.

This functional group is the product of the Petasis reaction, which combines a carbonyl compound with one of these to create a more complicated one. The Kabachnik-Fields reaction combines one of these with a carbonyl and a hydro-phosphoryl in a reaction that is often the first step in creating peptidomimetic compounds. The Mannich reaction creates a secondary or tertiary one, while the product of the Strecker synthesis includes one of these and a carboxylic acid.  Often created by the reaction of an imine and sodium cyano-borohydride, this is, FTP, what functional group that consists of three hydrogen or carbon atoms singly bonded to one nitrogen atom?

protonate the DEAD reagent in the Mitsunobu reaction. A silyl group migrates via a pentavalent intermediate to form an oxygen bond in these compounds in the Brook rearrangement, while an intermediate organo-chromium halide adds onto an aldehyde and yields one of these after workup in the Nozaki Hiyama reaction. Ethers can be converted to these in the presence of an organolithium reagent and THF via the Wittig rearrangement and the? Fischer esterification proceeds with the dehydration of one of these and carboxylic acids. For 10 points, identify these compounds which consist of a hydroxyl group and are exemplified by ethanol and methanol.

Quaternary ammonium salt may be used to create amides and these compounds in a reaction named for Hoffmann. Eliminations following Zaitsev's rule also create these compounds, the Z-type of which are created in a Wittig reaction. These compounds may be synthesized by reacting a ketone or aldehyde with a phosphorus ylide. The bond in these compounds consists of a pi bond and a sigma bond and they are sometimes referred to as olefins. Examples of these include butene and ethylene. For 10 points, name these compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-carbon double bond.

The phenyl type of these compounds are converted to hydroxy aryl ketones in the Fries rearrangement, and Dieckmann and Claisen condensations occur between these compounds. Under basic conditions, they can be hydrolyzed to form soaps, as triglycerides are examples of these compounds. They can be produced by refluxing the reagents with a sulfuric acid catalyst in a reaction named for Fischer. Characterized by a carbon atom single-bonded to one oxygen atom and double-bonded to another, they are often fruity-smelling. For 10 points, name these organic compounds formed in the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol.

One method of creating these compounds involves hydroboration and oxidation of alkenes. The Jones reagent converts these into carboxylic acids, and two of these are needed for the creation of an ether in the Williamson synthesis. Oxidation of the secondary type of these creates ketones, and they include one that is produced during petroleum refining or by fermentation of sugars and has formula C2H6O, the "ethyl" variety. For 10 points, name this class of organic compound that contains a hydroxyl group, the simplest of which is methanol.

An alpha-halo sulfone is converted to one of these molecules in the Ramberg-Backlund reaction. Markovnikov's rule describe the reaction of a protic acid with one of these molecules. The E-isomer of one of these molecules can be produced by applying the Schlosser Modification to a reaction of a carbonyl compound and a ylide. Produced in the (*) Wittig Reaction, for 10 points, name these hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds, also known as olefins.

Phenyl versions of these form acylium ions in a rearrangement catalyzed by Lewis acids, a reaction that can also occur via photochemical excitation, while an example of another reaction involving them uses high heat to create acrylic acid. In addition to the Fries rearrangement and their namesake pyrolysis, molecules with two of their functional group can react intramolecularly to form cyclic ketones, and these molecules are commonly created by another reaction that involves an alcohol and carboxylic acid with acid catalysis. Involved in reactions named for Dieckmann and Fischer, this is, for 10 points, what class of molecules that contains a carbonyl group adjacent to an oxygen atom bound to a carbon atom and known for their odors?

Topic 4: 

These features may create breccia-filled diatremes, which can form maars when they reach the surface. These features subglacial type can cause floods called jokulhaups, and flood basalts form when they affect oceans.(*) Lahars form when water mixes with pyroclastic flows from these geological features, and the collapse of craters in these features creates calderas. These features shield type is exemplified by Mauna Loa. For 10 points, name these geological features, ruptures in the crust through which ash and magma escape.

The absence of these features can cause isostatic rebound. These features create paternoster lakes and parallel ones are responsible for artes. These features also create kames, which often form with kettle lakes. These features often form from firn in cirques and their retreat creates eskers and drumlins and leaves moraine. For 10 points, name these features that can be tidewater, alpine, or continental, slow-moving rivers of ice.

When formed underneath glaciers, these landforms can cause devastating floods known as jokulhaups (yoe-kull-howps). A pyroclastic flow may stem from these landforms, which can excrete material known as pahoehoe (pa-HOY-hoy) and aa (ah-ah). Broadly, these landforms are classified into composite, shield, and cinder types. For 10 points, name these landforms, prominent around the Earth's "ring of fire," which are formed where magma can reach the earth's surface.

When formed underneath glaciers, these landforms can cause devastating floods known as jokulhaups (yoe-kull-howps). A pyroclastic flow may stem from these landforms, which can excrete material known as pahoehoe (pa-HOY-hoy) and aa (ah-ah). Broadly, these landforms are classified into composite, (*) shield, and cinder types. For 10 points, name these landforms, prominent around the Earth's "ring of fire," which are formed where magma can reach the earth's surface.

Some kinds of these locations are named for Benioff and Wadati. A type of volcano that can be found near these regions composes the Ring of Fire. These regions are the opposite of divergent boundaries. For 10 points, name these regions that are formed when an oceanic plate slides beneath another tectonic plate, pressing the lower plate deeper into the Earth.

The surfaces of these objects often feature bands known as ogives, and they are also responsible for crafting roche moutonnees, or sheep-backs. These bodies are formed via the compactification of nv into firn. They are also responsible for the creation of (*) rock flour, and deposit erratics as well as till in landforms such as eskers and drumlins. Many of them begin at a cirque and end at a morraine, located at opposite ends of a u-shaped valley. Coming in continental and alpine varieties, for 10 points, identify these large masses of slow-moving ice.

Germany's Maastricht Formation contains fossils from this geologic period, which saw the split of Africa and South America. It is geologically significant both for the large amounts of chalk formed during this period and for a layer of iridium known as the K-T boundary, which is believed to have been deposited by an asteroid. This period also saw diversification of dinosaur species, including the spawning of Tyrannosaurus rex. For 10 points, name this final period of the Mesozoic Era, whose end saw the mass extinction of the dinosaurs.

The absence of these geological features can cause isostatic rebound, while the presence of these features can cause crust subsidence. These features make rock flour that can create milky-colored bodies of water. The retreat of these features can form sharp ridges called artes (uh-RETZ). The lower parts of these features are known as ablation zones, and these features use plucking and abrasion to create drumlin fields and eskers. For 10 points, name these large bodies of moving ice.

Alternating light and dark bands in these objects are called ogives. They can form U-shaped valleys with knife-like rock ridges called aretes between them. They lose mass in their zones of ablation, and they create teardrop-shaped hills called drumlins. Temperate ones are so called because they are at melting point year-round, and they form sediments characterized as terminal and lateral. For 10 points, name these entities that form moraines lakes when their debris dams a stream and that form icebergs when they break apart.

The extinction event preceding this period saw the dying off of the conodonts. The Morrison Formation is from this period. This period is named for a mountain range north of the Alps in Switzerland and France. The Solnhofen limestone contains fossils from this period, including Archaeopteryx. The Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus first appeared in this period. This is the middle period of the Mesozoic Era. For 10 points, name this period occurring before the Cretaceous and after the Triassic.

Topic 5: 

A "checkerboard" variety of this procedure is undergone by reagents in the ELISA assay. Another type of this process is named after Karl Fischer and used to determine the amount of water in a sample. One type of this process utilizes bromthymol (BROM-thigh-mol) blue or phenolphthalein (FEEN-ulth-ALE-een) depending on the strength of the acid and base involved. Those components are added until an (*) equivalence point is reached. For 10 points, identify this laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of a solution by adding incremental amounts of another known solution.

A "checkerboard" variety of this procedure is undergone by reagents in the ELISA assay. Another type of this process is named after Karl Fischer and used to determine the amount of water in a sample. One type of this process utilizes bromthymol (BROM-thigh-mol) blue or phenolphthalein (FEEN-ulth-ALE-een) depending on the strength of the acid and base involved. Those components are added until an equivalence point is reached. For 10 points, identify this laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of a solution by adding incremental amounts of another known solution.

One form of this procedure is used to find trace amounts of moisture in a sample and is named for Karl Fischer. EDTA is often used in the complexometric form of this procedure. This procedure's namesake curve can be used to determine the acid dissociation constant. In the acid-base type of this procedure, indicators such as methyl orange are used to find the equivalence point. For 10 points, name this procedure which is used to find the concentration of a reagent.

This process is performed to determine a solutions ammonia content as part of the Kjeldahl Method. An acid known as EDTA is commonly used in its complexometric type, and this process acid-base type makes use of a burette until reaching the equivalence point. Bromothymol blue, methyl orange, and phenolphthalein are chemicals commonly used in this process as indicators. For 10 points, name this common lab technique used to determine the concentration of a solution.

The potentiometric form of this process involves measuring the potential difference between two cells and using the Nernst Equation. When this process is done using a polyprotic solution, there will be more than one equivalence point. At the half equivalence point of this process for a buffer solution, the pH equals the pKa, as shown by the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation. For 10 points, name this process that often makes use of indicators such as phenolphthalein (FEE-nul-THAY-leen) and a buret.

The Karl Fischer test is an example of this procedure used to determine water content in a sample. The amount of surfactant needed to achieve stabilization of a colloid can be determined by the zeta potential type of this process, and EDTA is commonly used to perform its namesake action on metal ions in solution in the compleximetric type of this process. Methyl orange can be used in the chemical or acid-base type of this technique, which employs that and other indicators to observe the equivalence point of a sample. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique  employed to determine the concentration of an unknown solution by slowly dripping in some solution of known concentration.

Amino acids are least soluble at the isoelectric point, a point on the curve associated with this lab technique. Finding the end point for this lab technique requires substances like (*) phenolphthalein and litmus, which are known as indicators. The curve associated with this technique has an inflection point when the amount of a reagent added from a buret is the same as the amount of analyte in the sample; that point is the equivalence point. For 10 points, name this technique that is used to determine the unknown concentration of a known reactant.

This processs complexometric type uses EDTA to detect metal ions. The back variety of this process is the standard type done in reverse, and some substances, when undergoing this process, produce a graph with multiple inflection points. [*] Polyprotic acids have more than one of those equivalence points, at which an indicator, such as phenolphthalein, will change color. Usually done with an acid and a base, for 10 points, name this laboratory technique that utilizes a burette and is used to find the concentration of a reactant by slowly adding it into a solution of known concentration.

One type based on zeta potentials can determine the point of flocculation. Eriochrome black T may be used along with EDTA, a chelating agent, to detect metal ions in the complexometric type of this process. The inflection point of this method's namesake curve is the equivalence point, where neutralization occurs, and where bromthymol blue, methyl orange, or phenolphthalein, the pH indicator, changes color. A method of volumetric analysis, for 10 points, name this chemical technique used to find the concentration of a reagent, performed using a burette.

The Fisher method uses this technique to measure the amount of water in organic materials. The Mohr and Volhard methods employ this technique to determine chlorine and silver concentrations. Iodine can be used to determine starch content in one version, and bromothymol blue is among the indicators used in another version. For 10 points, name this chemical analysis technique that often employs a burette, and which is often used to determine acid and base concentrations.

Topic 6: 

The larvae of some organisms of this phylum are called veligers. Organisms in this phylum feed through ribbons of tiny teeth called radula. Many organisms of this phylum can secrete calcium carbonate through their mantle to create a dorsal covering. Other members of this phylum can create spiral shells or produce pearls. Classes in this phylum include Cephalopoda and Gastropoda. For 10 points, name this phylum that includes organisms like snails, squid, and clams.

One class of this phylum is distinguished by the presence of a pharynx that opens into the gastrovascular (GAS-tro-VAS-kyoo-lurr) cavity and is known as the actinopharynx (ack-TIN-o-FAIR-inks). One member of this phylum, Chironex fleckeri (KY-ro-nex FLECK-er-eye), is in the class Cubozoa (CUBE-oh-ZO-uh). Its class Anthozoa (AN-tho-ZO-uh) contains corals. Organisms in this phylum are characterized by stinging cells known as nematocytes (nuh-MAT-oh-sites) and grow from a polyp to a medusa. For 10 points, what marine phylum includes sea anemone, hydra, and jellyfish?

One chytrid (KYE-trid) member of this group has been blamed for the worldwide decline in frog populations, and the Salem witch trials have been blamed on another species that infests rye with ergot. Lichens consist of algae and a member of this kingdom, whose species reproduce through spores and have hyphae bodies with chitin cell walls. For 10 points, name this kingdom of important decomposers like molds, yeasts, and mushrooms.

Classes in this phylum include Polyplacophora, while another organism in this phylum is the geoduck [GOOEY-duck]. Many classes in it have a broad muscular foot and a scraping tongue called a radula. All organisms in this phylum exhibit bilateral symmetry and contain a mantle cavity, and it includes the largest invertebrate, the colossal squid.  For 10 points, name this diverse invertebrate phylum that includes clams, snails, and octopuses.

Calcarea and hexactinellida are groups within this phylum that have excretory structures known as oscula. These organisms, whose bodies consist of the gelatinous mesohyl, depend on cells called choanocytes to produce sperm because they do not have reproductive organs. Most of these organisms are hermaphrodites and all are sessile. With bodies consisting of spicules of silica or calcium carbonate are, for 10 points, what phylum of organisms more commonly known as sponges?

Some members of this phylum possess pincer-like pedicellariae, and those species also possess a madreporite plate and a ring canal. A calcium carbonate material called stereom forms skeletal plates in organisms of this phylum, some members of which possess spines and a mouth called Aristotles Lantern. Classes in this phylum include (*) crinoidea and asteroidea, and members of it possess a water vascular system and tube feet for locomotion. Adult members of this phylum typically exhibit five-way radial symmetry. For ten points, name this phylum of animals that includes sea urchins and starfish.

Some members of this phylum have magnetite-coated teeth and eight overlapping shell plates, while others are covered in photophores and can turn themselves inside out. Members of this phylum have a sense organ called the osphradia, and an odontophore supporting a radula. They were the first to develop an efficient excretory system. Other features of this phylum include muscular feet, which may secrete mucus, and a mantle, which may secrete a shell. For 10 points, name this phylum containing bivalves, gastropods, and cephalopods, which includes animals like snails, squids and clams.

Larvae of creatures in this phylum can be lecithotrophic or planktotrophic. Some species in this phylum possess pedicellariae, and one organism in this phylum has contributed extensively to coral reef destruction by eating coral polyps. One class in this phylum can eject its internal organs to deter predators, and these organisms possess water vascular systems. Along with Chordata, members of this phylum are deuterostomes, and all members have radial symmetry. For 10 points, name this phylum that includes animals like sea cucumbers and starfish.

Many of these organisms contain organs of Bojanus, and some types of them produce a free swimming larva called a veliger. Most members of this phylum possess a chitinous ribbon used for food intake, which is supported by the odontophore. Many of their organs are contained in the(*) visceral mass, including the aforementioned radula. Some members of this phylum secrete calciferous shells from the mantle, and it includes the class Cephalopoda. For 10 points, name this phylum of animals that includes bivalves such as clams, as well as squid and octopi.

This phylum's skeleton is composed of miniscule networks of calcium carbonate known as stereom. These animals possess ampullae in their tube feet, which is part of their water vascular system used for feeding, moving, and breathing. Examples of this phylum include class Asteroidea. The only deuterostome phylum other than the Chordates, for 10 points, name this phylum which includes sea urchins, starfish, and sand dollars.

Topic 7: 

Its late-onset form, called LOTS, is not fatal, but its infantile and juvenile varieties are. Its symptoms resemble Sandhoff disease, but it is caused by a mutation on chromosome 15 rather than 5. Reduced activity of the enzyme hexosaminidinase A, caused by a mutation in the HEXA gene, leads to accumulation of the ganglioside GM2 in the brain's neurons. This autosomal recessive disease causes the appearance of a cherry-red spot on the retina. Other symptoms include an inability to swallow as well as blindness, deafness, and paralysis. For 10 points, name this lysosomal storage disorder which is usually fatal by age 5 and is most common in Ashkenazi Jewish populations.

One drug used to treat this condition is Clozapine, which is combined with estradiol in treatments for postmenopausal women with this condition. One type of this disease is the hebephrenic type, and the catatonic type of this disease leads to sufferers becoming nearly immobile. Sufferers of this disorder frequently (*) hallucinate and have delusions of grandeur. For 10 points, name this mental disease which can come in a paranoid type and whose sufferers will often talk out loud to themselves.

The most common species of this disease is vivax, while the deadliest is falciparum. The sporozites of this disease become schizonts, which become merozites, which destroy red blood cells. Artemisinin (AR-tuh-MIS-uh-nin) has replaced (*) quinine (KWHY-nine) as the preferred drug to treat this disease, which is characterized by recurrent fevers. Caused by Plasmodium protozoa, it is prevented by spraying DDT and hanging nets around beds. For 10 points, name this disease spread by mosquitoes.

The most common species of this disease is vivax, while the deadliest is falciparum. The sporozites of this disease become schizonts, which become merozites, which destroy red blood cells. Artemisinin (AR-tuh-MIS-uh-nin) has replaced quinine (KWHY-nine) as the preferred drug to treat this disease, which is characterized by recurrent fevers. Caused by Plasmodium protozoa, it is prevented by spraying DDT and hanging nets around beds. For 10 points, name this disease spread by mosquitoes.

One type of this illness characterized by arrhythmias and brachycardia is named for Emery and Dreifuss. The presence of Gowers sign and elevated creatine kinase are used to diagnose various types of this disease, which has X-linked varieties named for Becker and Duchenne. Fibrosis and excess adipose tissue gradually replace normal (*) myofibers in this degenerative disease. Progressive scoliosis is a common sign of this disease, which leads to deformation of the legs and pelvis, loss of the ability to balance, and eventual respiratory distress and death. For 10 points, name this disease characterize by wasting of the skeletal muscle.

One variety of this condition was often mistaken for Friedreich's Ataxia until the 1980s, and its more common variety is closely related to Sandhoff disease. A common test for it involves the body's breakdown of 4-methyl-lumbelli-ferone. This disease is caused by a failure to metabolize GM2 gangliosides in the lysosomes of the brain. That is because a mutation in the HEXA gene causes aberrant activity of hexosaminidase A, leading to this disorder. It is characterized by a cherry-red spot on the retina of affected individuals and usually leads to death in its sufferers by age two. For 10 points, name this recessive genetic disorder prevalent in Ashkenazi Jews.

The DOTS method was originally developed to ensure treatment of this disease, and first-line drugs to treat this illness include isoniazid and rifampicin. This disease can be diagnosed with the Mantoux test, also known as a PPD test, in which a bacterial extract is injected just under the (*) skin. Common symptoms of this disease, which is caused by mycobacterium infection, include high fever, weight loss, and a bloody cough. For 10 points, give this disease that usually afflicts the lungs but also commonly advances into the spine when untreated, and was once called consumption.

Brushfield spots are more common in sufferers of this disease, many of whom also suffer from duodenal atresia. About 20% of people with it also suffer from transient leukemia, and they have a higher incidence of ALL and AML. The mechanism of this disease may partially be due to overexpression of miR-155 and miR-802 resulting in decreased MeCP2 expression and dysregulation of NFAT. The increased development of Alzheimers in people with this disease is due to overexpression of APP and SOD1. This condition can result from a Robertsonian translocation involving chromosome 14, and sufferers have a small chin, large tongue, an extra fold in the eyelid, and an IQ in the 50s. For 10 points, name this genetic condition characterized by an extra chromosome 21.

This disease can be treated with the drug tacrine, which blocks the functions of cholinesterase [kolin-ester-ase]. This disease causes degeneration of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Though originally hypothesized to be caused by the tau proteins, the plaques caused by beta amyloid protein cause this diease. This disease, named for a German neurologist, is characterized by decreased acetylcholine levels. For 10 points, name common form of dementia, a disease of the elderly characterized by memory loss.

One drug used to treat this condition is Clozapine, which is combined with estradiol in treatments for postmenopausal women with this condition. One type of this disease is the hebephrenic type, and the catatonic type of this disease leads to sufferers becoming nearly immobile. Sufferers of this disorder frequently hallucinate and have delusions of grandeur. For 10 points, name this mental disease which can come in a paranoid type and whose sufferers will often talk out loud to themselves.

Topic 8: 

This scientist solved the terramycin problem as well as suggested beta-lactam rather than Robert Robinson's suggested solution of thiazolidine-oxazolone concerning penicillin. He worked with Geoffrey Wilkinson on ferrocene, while he discussed the synthesis of cephalosporin in his 1965 Nobel Prize lecture. The Prevost reaction produces anti-diols, the opposite of the outcome of a reaction between iodine, acetate, and alkenes in a ? cis-hydroxylation named after this man. Kenichi Fukui and a colleague of this man were both awarded the 1981 Nobel Prize for work similar to that of his most famous result. FTP, name this American chemist, one of the namesakes of a doubly-eponymous set of rules predicting the stereochemistry of pericyclic reactions, along with Hoffman.

Willi Hennig proposed a system based on synapomorphies that replaced this man's system; that new system was cladistics. This man changed the Celsius scale such that water freezes at 0 and boils at 100, whereas Celsius himself had it the other way around. He at first proposed a Homo anthropomorpha, which he later renamed primates. He was also the first to group plants together based on how they reproduced. The first to classify organisms using the binomial nomenclature, for 10 points, name this Swedish biologist whose Systema Naturae proposed his system of taxonomical classification.

The superconducting Chevrel phase adopts this geometry, whose stability complex for formation can be found form the Irving-Williams series. They can isomerize via a reaction that forces them through a C-sub-2v intermediate or a D-sub-3h intermediate. Besides undergoing the Ray-Dutt or Bailar twists, their ligands can be arranged facially or meridonally. Werner complexes exhibit this formation, whose orbitals can be divided into the t-sub-2g and e-sub-g sets due to crystal field splitting. One of their axes may elongate to break degeneracy in the classic Jahn-Teller effect, and this geometry occurs in sulfur hexafloride, molybdenum hexacarbonyl, or any complex with no lone pairs and six ligands according to VSEPR theory. For 10 points, name this moleculer geometry which resembles an eight-faced solid.

mKate, tdTomato, and kindling protein are among the proteins that perform a similar function to this protein. Its T203Y mutant was based on the crystal structure of this protein's S65T mutant. An arginine at position 96 and a glutamate at position 222 are thought to catalyze a reaction in the Ser65-Tyr66-Gly67 sequence of its beta barrel. It was first purified by Osamu Shimomura, who along with Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work with it. For 10 points, name this protein isolated from Aequorea victoria, a jellyfish, which produces a colorful glow when exposed to blue light and which is often used as a reporter gene.

This scientist proposed that enzymes stabilize the transition state complex. While sick and in bed, this man worked out the existence of alpha helices. This man's namesake rules describe the structure of ionic crystalsm and he proposed the concept of (*) resonance in molecules. Along with three colleagues, he discovered that sickle cell anemia was caused by altered hemoglobin. This advocate of Vitamin C megadoses also proposed the idea of hybrid orbitals. For 10 points, name this only winner of both the Chemistry and Peace Nobels.

The central carbon atom of fenestranes has this molecular geometry, and reactions of substituents of complexes with this geometry are greatly accelerated when the trans ligand is a good pi acceptor. In crystal field theory, the d-orbitals of these complexes are split into four levels, giving it larger stabilization energy than the octahedral configuration. This geometry is occupied by low-spin d-8 complexes like Vaska's complex, the chemotherapy drug cisplatin, and a hydrogenation catalyst with a central rhodium atom and a series of triphenylphosphine ligands named for Wilkinson. According to VESPR, xenon tetraflouride occupies this configuration since it has 2 lone pairs and 4 ligands. For 10 points, name this molecular geometry which is flat with four sides.

Louis Pasteur studied the impact of this phenomenon on polarized light using tartrate crystals. Another example of this is observed by bombarding Azobenzene with certain photons. The topological type of this occurs in DNA molecules with different linking numbers. Historically important examples include dextrotartaric acid and levotartaric acid, as well as comparisons between silver cyanate and silver fulminate made by Friedrich Whler [VOH-lur]. The type of this that impacts functional groups is cis/trans, which is a geometric form of this phenomenon. The chain and position types are structural forms. Name this phenomenon exhibited by different molecules with the same chemical formula.

A 2007 study found that a bacterial glycosidase could remove the surface antigens used in this classification scheme. This classification scheme is often appended with a plus or minus indicating the presence or absence of a protein first discovered in the rhesus monkey. This classification scheme was invented by Karl Landsteiner, who explained why some blood transfusions failed. For 10 points, name this classification scheme in which a person is classified as A, B, AB, or O.

Many examples of this relationship involve components that may be separated by reaction with tartaric acid. This relationship, first discovered between cyanic and fulminic acid, may emerge when steric effects prevent a compound from rotating around otherwise freely rotating bonds. (*) Tautomers are rapidly interconverting examples of one form of this relationship. Another example of this relationship occurs between cis and trans examples of the same alkene, a type of diastereomerism (die-ah-STARE-ee-AH-mer-ism). Another example of this relationship, called constitutional, exists between tert- and n-butane. For 10 points, name this relationship describing molecules with different structural formulas but the same molecular formula.

These organisms produce a prolamin storage protein called zein which is used to synthesize vicara fibers. Experiments by DeVries and Correns explained the "xenia" effect observed in this organism by invoking double fertilization. These organisms, which have distinctive male inflorescence are closely related to the "teosinte" grasses. Experiments on the triploid aleurone layers of its endosperm led to the discovery of the Ac/Ds system which confers varying colour patters in this organism; that experiment led to a Nobel Prize for Barbara McClintock's discovery of transposons. For 10 points, identify this crop which provides the ingredients for tortillas.

Topic 9: 

This element is bonded to sodium and aluminum in cryolite, and it can be found naturally in minerals such as topaz and apatite. It was first isolated in the lab by Henri Moissan, and a compound containing six atoms of this element is used during the uranium enrichment process. Neil Bartlett created the first known noble gas compound using (*) xenon and this element. This element is found in the polymer Teflon and is also bonded to carbon and chlorine in Freon. It is an extremely strong oxidizing agent, since it has the highest electronegativity out of all the elements. For ten points, identify this lightest halogen with atomic number 9 and chemical symbol F.

Though not lithium or potassium, this element is commonly used with an alcohol to reduce ammonia in the Birch reduction. This element's carbonate is produced by the Solvay process and is called soda ash. This element's hydroxide, a common ingredient of soap, is called lye. Burning bright yellow in a flame test, this element has a bicarbonate called baking soda and a chloride called table salt. For 10 points, name this element symbolized Na.

This compound is produced in a process that uses Glover towers to remove nitrogen oxide called the lead chamber process. This compound and a gas that generates it are found in a solution called oleum, which is formed with a vanadium pentoxide catalyst in the contact process. Also called oil of vitriol, it is a major component of car batteries, Venuss atmosphere, and acid rain. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

This compound is produced in a process that uses Glover towers to remove nitrogen oxide called the lead chamber process. This compound and a gas that generates it are found in a solution called oleum, which is formed with a vanadium pentoxide catalyst in the contact process. Also called oil of vitriol, it is a major component of car batteries, Venuss atmosphere, and (*) acid rain. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

The Castner process produces this metal via the electrolysis of its hydroxide, and the Solvay process produces soda ash, this element's carbonate. This metal reacts violently with water, sometimes explosively bursting in flames upon contact. Lye is the caustic hydroxide of this element, and this element burns bright yellow in the flame test. Baking soda is its bicarbonate, while common table salt is its chloride. For 10 points, name this chemical element symbolized Na.

Along with sodium and aluminum, this element makes up the uncommon mineral cryolite. This element bound to carbon can be used to create Teflon. Freon was a brand name given to another combination of this element with carbon and chlorine, which is considered a key agent in ozone layer depletion. This halogen has an electronegativity of 4.0, making it the most electronegative element. For 10 points, name this element whose anion is used in a process that makes public water healthier for teeth.

This substance reacts with sodium chloride in the Mannheim process. This substance is created industrially through a process that employs vanadium (vuh-NAY-dee-um) oxide as a catalyst, the contact process. A certain trioxide combined with this compound is called oleum (OH-lee-um), and this compound's two hydrogen atoms per ionizable molecule makes it diprotic. For 10 points, name this strong acid found in car batteries with formula H-two S-O four.

Two elements from this group are exchanged in an SN2 reaction named for Finklestein. The heaviest of these elements is produced by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. With a name meaning salt-formers, this group contains elements in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases at standard temperature and pressure. One of these elements is commonly found in the thyroid, while another is the most electronegative. For 10 points, name this group containing astatine, iodine, fluorine, and chlorine.

This element can be produced via fusion of two carbon atoms at 600 megakelvins in a star with at least three solar masses, or in a Downs Cell or by electrolysis in the Castner process. Vapor lamps made of this element are used for street lighting and give off a distinctive yellow light, and it was discovered through electrolysis by Humphry Davy. This soft, silvery metal is exchanged with potassium in a namesake pump. For 10 points, identify this element with atomic number 11, which forms a common condiment with chloride.

This element, whose most stable form is the rhombic (ROM-bick) allotrope (AL-oh-trope), is extracted by pumping superheated steam into deposits in the Frasch (FRASH) process. Thiols (THY-olls) are alcohol analogs with oxygen replaced by this element. A platinum or vanadium (vuh-NAY-dee-um) catalyst is used in the contact process, which synthesizes a compound consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, and this element. Although blue in flame test, it is yellow as a solid and a liquid. This element forms cross-links in rubber vulcanization. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 16.

Topic 0: 

The Valves of Kirkring and Solitary Glands are found in this organ, as are the Central Lacteal portions of lymphatic vessels. Alpha-defensins secreted by the Paneth cells in this organ help defend the stem cells found within it, and Goblet cells make up the crypts of Lieberkuhn here. Protective alkaline substances are secreted by Brunner's glands in this organ, while other tissues found in this organ include Peyer's Patches. Bile and pancreatic juices from the ampulla of Vater enter this structure through the Sphincter of Oddi, and finger-like projections in this organ are called villi. For 10 points, name this organ containing the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, found between the stomach and the large intestine.

One structure in this organ is lined by podocytes and features capillaries with fenestrations not spanned by diaphragms that are large enough for anything smaller than a red blood cell to enter. The granular cells of its juxtaglomerular apparatus secrete a hormone that forms a system with angiotensin and aldosterone. Its functional units contain a glomerulus surrounded by Bowman's capsule, and that aforementioned proximal tubule is part of the loop of Henle. Located under a pair of glands that secrete cortisol and epinephrine, for 10 points, name these organs that contain many nephrons and are responsible for producing urine.

Mesengial cells in this structure couple it to the surrounding blood vessels. One section of this structure is the macula densa, which secretes prostaglandins that trigger hormone release from JG cells. One section of it is surrounded by the vasa recta, and another section of it upregulates aquaporin-2 in response to vasopressin. The vascular pole is the site where the glomerulus enters Bowman's capsule in this structure. Consisting of both proximal and distal convoluted tubules, the Loop of Henle, and the collecting duct, for 10 points, name this functional unit of the kidney.

This organ is divided into the scala media, scala tympani, and scala vestibuli (ves-TIB-you-lee). Vibrations on the basilar membrane in this structure are transduced into electrical stimuli by this organ's inner hair cells, which are located in the Organ of Corti (CORE-tee). This snail-shaped organ is the primary sense organ of hearing. For 10 points, name this organ also known as the "inner ear."

The ANP hormone produced in this organ inhibits the production of sodium, while the Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome is a malfunction of this organ. Impulses from the Bundle of His are carried by Purkinje fibers in this organ, and the aorta originates here. The mitral valve separates the left atrium and ventricle of, for 10 points, which organ made of cardiac muscle that pumps blood through the body?

This structures Mller glial cells can differentiate into multipotent progenitor cells when the cells around them are damaged. This structure is connected to the ciliary body by the ora serrata. Lateral inhibition in this structure is caused by horizontal and amacrine cells, which carry stimuli to multiple bipolar and ganglion cells. The choroid layer separates it from the sclera, and the [*] foveal pit is located at the center of the macula of this structure. It has a blind spot where it connects to the optic nerve and contains photorecepting rod and cone cells. For 10 points, name this layer of tissue on the back of the eye that collects optical signals to send to the brain.

The Macula Densa attaches one structure in this organ to another. Another structure found in this organ has mesangial, epithelia, and endothelial cells, and that structure contains a basement membrane of capillaries. That structure in this organ is surrounded by the Bowman's Capsule, and other structures in this organ include the proximal and distal tubules, the Loop of Henle, and the Glomerulus. Ureters leave these organs, and the adrenal glands can be found on top of these organs. Nephrons are the functional units of, for 10 points, these organs responsible for cleaning out the blood.

In developing embryos, part of this structure forms from Rathke's (RATH-keez) pouch, and it is located in a depression known as the sella turcica (SELL-uh TUR-kih-kuh), which is found in the sphenoid (SFEE-noyd) bone. Herring bodies are found in the axons that connect this entity to the hypothalamus. It regulates the body's water content by releasing vasopressin (VAZ-oh-PRESS-in) from its posterior lobe. For 10 points, name this "master gland" that releases prolactin and sits at the base of the brain.

One region within these structures contains modified smooth muscle cells called mesangial cells and octopus-like epithelial cells with many extensions, known as podocytes. Mammals and birds possess a deeply extending type of these structures which are surrounded by long capillaries called the vasa recta. A- and B-type natriuretic peptides act on a tightly packed region of cells within these structures, the (*) macula densa. Extra aquaporins are inserted into the distal portion of these structures in response to vasopressin, increasing their resorption of water. Renin is secreted by their juxtaglomerular apparatus. For 10 points, identify these structures comprised of subunits including the proximal and distal tubules, the glomerulus, and Bowman's capsule, the smallest functional unit of the kidney.

This organ is affected by Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. In crocodilians, the foramen of Panizza joins two of its parts, and in infants, it features a foramen ovale that later closes. Its papillary muscles tighten the chordae tendineae, and two of its structures are sometimes called auricles. The QRS complex results from the action of this organs bundle of His, Purkinje fibers, and SA node. It is located in a two-walled sac called the pericardium and its electrical potential can be measured with an EKG. In humans, it consists of two atria and two ventricles. For 10 points, name this muscular organ that pumps blood.

Topic 1: 

This pathway can be regulated through magnesium ion efflux from one structure's lumen. It can also be regulated by thioredoxin, which facilitates hydrogen transfer between reduced ferredoxin and NADPH. It involves the modification of ribulose bisphosphate by the enzyme rubisco, and its penultimate step results in the formation of fructose-6-phosphate. Products generated by photosystems one and two aid in the fixation of inorganic carbon dioxide in this pathway. For 10 points, name this light-independent cycle of photosynthesis.

Rotenone can block one part of this pathway, and superoxides can erroneously form in its first and third sites. Iron-sulfur clusters act as carriers in it for the protonated form of Flavin mononucleotides, which are transferred to another protein to form semiquinone. In it, succinate is converted to fumarate prior to the formation of cytochrome c, which an eponymous oxidase alters to enable the formation of two water molecules. It ultimately involves the movement of four protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondria, thereby creating a proton gradient capable of powering the synthesis of ATP. For 10 points, name this series of complexes responsible for oxidative phosphorylation in eukaryotes, often abbreviated ETC.

A family of channel proteins that transport mostly this chemical and its derivatives are the EAATs. The action of molecule's dehydrogenase enzyme results in most of the ammonia eliminated by the urea cycle. PCP works by agonizing this signal molecule by mimicking NMDA, which is itself the namesake of one family of receptors for this molecule. Deamination of this compound yields the same product as the operation of isocitrate dehydrogenase on D-isocitrate; that compound, the third from citrate in the Krebs cycle, is an alpha-keto derivative of this acid. This amino acid with a carboxylic acid side chain has a name abbreviated E. For 10 points, name this compound, the principle brain excitatory neurotransmitter.

Over 90% of patients with primary biliary cirrhosis have antibodies against an enzyme that breaks
 down this compound. In the Cori cycle, this compound is created in the liver from lactate. One enzyme that
 breaks down this compound contains E1, E2, and E3 subunits and uses lipoic acid and thiamine
 pyrophosphate as cofactors. Transamination of this compound produces alanine. A namesake carboxylase
 converts this compound to oxaloacetate in gluconeogenesis, and a namesake dehydrogenase converts it to
 Acetyl CoA for entrance into the Krebs Cycle. For 10 points, name this three-carbon compound, two
 molecules of which are the final products of glycolysis.

A molecule important in this process is formed when beta-oxidation breaks down fatty acids, and one step in it produces L-malate from fumarate. Beginning when oxaloacetate and acetyl CoA react, it sends succinate, FADH2, and NADH to the electron transport chain. Pyruvate from glycolysis starts this pathway that occurs in the matrix of the mitochondrion. For 10 points, name this second stage of cellular respiration, often named for a German-born biologist.

Umezawa et al showed that the signaling of this molecule is regulated by protein phosphatase 2C. The pathway for the synthesis of this compound begins with a zeaxanthin precursor and ends with the cleavage of a C40 carotenoid into xanthoxin, which is finally oxidized to this molecule; that process of this molecule's synthesis is called the MEP pathway. Functions of this hormone include promoting gene transcription for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding and producing a-amylase in order to act against the effects of gibberellins. It also plays a major function in regulating the closure of the stomata. For 10 points, name this plant hormone that is sometimes called dormin, which is responsible for the inhibition of seed germination, fruit ripening and budding.

The protein DWARF1 encodes for a receptor of one of these hormones, while plants deficient in phytochrome B tend to overexpress these hormones or their receptors. These hormones act by stimulating the degradation of DELLA proteins, and proplastids produce and export the starting material for them. They are synthesized from (*) ent-kaurene in the apical meristem, and they cause sugars to be produced from starch by stimulating the production of alpha-amylase. Fungal infection resulting in an excess of this hormone causes bakanae, or foolish seedling disease. For 10 points, name these plant hormones that promote leaf growth and stem elongation.

The DNA in this organelle (or-guh-NELL) is inherited only from the mother. The inner membrane of this organelle contains folds known as cristae (CRISS-tay) and encloses its matrix. This organelle is the site of oxidative phosphorylation (ox-ih-DAY-tiv FOSS-for-ill-AY-shun), which occurs at the end of the electron transport chain. For 10 points, name this organelle responsible for cellular respiration, which produces ATP and thus provides energy for the cell.

A key step in the synthesis of this molecule forms a lumazine derivative with a sugar side chain. That synthesis begins with GTP and ribulose-5-phosphate. This molecule is a reactant in the step producing tigloyl Co-A in isoleucine degradation and is used in the first step of proline degradation. This molecule is also used in the step after thiolysis and before hydration in the cycle of beta oxidation of fatty acids. It makes up part of dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase, the third enzyme in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, and is also necessary for the production of fumarate in the TCA cycle. For 10 points, name this cofactor which transfers electrons directly to Complex II, bypassing the first proton pump in the electron transport chain, and which is derived from vitamin B2.

These structures are the primary location of DHAP acyltransferase, which plays a role in plasmalogen synthesis. Most proteins imported into this organelle require a serine lysine leucine C-terminal signal. One defect of this organelle is Zellweger syndrome. Along with mitochondria, this organelle converts fatty acids into acetyl-CoA in a process known as beta-oxidation. However, this organelle uses catalase for its most notable function. It is most abundantly found in the liver. For 10 points, name this organelle that get rids of a namesake group of compounds by breaking it into water and oxygen.

Topic 2: 

One class of these proteins contain a winged helix or forkhead box domain, while another class of these is inhibited by Rb protein and regulates the production of cyclins, called E2F. Another class of these homodimerizes after being activated by the JAK kinase and regulates the production of interferon, and are known as the STAT proteins. An example of them from yeast used in various experiments is GAL4, which binds to UAS. They operate by recruiting coactivators or histone acetyltransferases and bind to consensus sequences. Many of these proteins contain a leucine zipper or a zinc finger. Basal ones include TFIID, which binds to the TATA box, and most contain an activating domain and a DNA binding domain. For 10 points, name these proteins responsible for recruiting RNA polymerase and promote their namesake process of RNA production.

In prokaryotes, this process typically begins at the Pribnow Box, where sigma factor 70 binds. This process is inhibited by a repressor protein, which is encoded by the lacI (LACK-"I") gene in the lac operon. In eukaryotes, this process typically begins when TBP binds to the (*) TATA box, triggering a pre-initiation complex that eventually allows RNA Polymerase to bind. This process has three steps: initiation, elongation, and termination. For 10 points, name this synthesis of mRNA from a DNA template, which is followed by translation.

The sarcin-ricin loop is found in the 23 Svedberg unit part of this structure. In eukaryotes, this structure has 40S and 60S subunits and is assembled in the nucleolus. P-, A-, and E- sites are locations on this organelle that respectively bind to(*) peptidyl, aminoacyl, and free tRNAs. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is distinguished by the presence of these organelles, which use peptidyl transferase to create peptide bonds linking amino acid chains. For 10 points, name this organelle that translates mRNA sequences to make proteins.

This organelle is structurally homologous to a Type III secretory system. In Gram-negative bacteria, L, P, and MS rings surround its hook and basal body. Eukaryotic ones have a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules and use power from dyenin and ATP to move. Prokaryotic ones rotate like a screw. Like a similar structure, they contain an axoneme (AK-suh-neem), but they are longer than cilia. For 10 points, name these whip-like structures used by sperm cells to move.

The aminoacylated form of this molecule complexes with EF1?-GTP, and it includes both the D loop and the T?CG loop. Another loop in this molecule contains inosine, which is largely responsible for the wobble that allows this molecule to base-pair with several different codons. This molecule binds to the A site of a ribosome, where its attached amino acid is incorporated into a nascent protein. For 10 points, name this type of RNA that base-pairs with mRNA.

Gamma-tubulin (TOO-byoo-lin) is needed to activate centrosomes in this phase, which follows the G2 checkpoint. One of these phases in meiosis includes synapsis (sin-APP-sis) and the crossing over of homologous chromosomes. Asters form during this phase that sees the disappearance of the nucleolus (noo-klee-OH-luss) and the growth of spindle fibers. For 10 points, name this phase of mitosis in which chromatin condenses into chromosomes prior to metaphase.

The antibiotic erythromycin works by disrupting this organelle, which contains E, P, and A sites on its large subunit. The parts of this organelle are assembled at nucleoli (noo-klee-OH-lye), and when bound to a membrane, these create the rough ER. Codons are translated at this organelle where the tRNA and mRNA meet. For 10 points, name this organelle that is the site of protein synthesis.

Activation-induced cytidine deaminase regulates these entities' diversification in somatic hypermutation and class switch recombination. RAG-1 and RAG-2 are involved in V(D)J recombination of genes coding for them. These proteins contain Fc and Fab fragments composed of two heavy and two light chains. One of their five isotypes triggers histamine release in allergic responses. They identify foreign objects and cause agglutination. Produced by plasma B cells, they are essential to the humoral immune system. For 10 points, name these Y-shaped proteins that bind to antigens.

It can infect dendritic cells via the DC-SIGN recptor and infection can be suppressed in vitro by the binding of ligands such as RANTES or SDF-1. The Tat gene produces proteins which bind to the TAR element and the binding of the RRE element to rev facilitates replication. Strains enter via the CCR5 or CXCR4 receptors and three gp41 molecules with a gp120 make up the Env cap of this virus. It consists of a capsid surrounding the p24 protein in a circular shape and it contains gag and pol genes. For 10 points, name this lentivirus which infects CD4+ helper T cells and leads to AIDS.

Two different types of these proteins are used in sandwich assays. These proteins can be further divided into classes such as opsonins and agglutinins (uh-GLUE-tin-ins). These proteins can be classified as polyclonal or monoclonal depending on the B lymphocytes they are produced by. These proteins consist of two heavy and two light chains, arranged in a Y shape, and their variable regions interact with epitopes. For 10 points, name these proteins found in the immune system, whose primary purpose is to bind to antigens.

Topic 3: 

Charette's reaction enantioselectively prepares chiral compounds of this type from allylic alcohols using the ligand dioxaborolane. One reaction creating this group requires a namesake reagent which was been variously synthesized by Emschwiller, Wittig, who used diazomethane, and Furukawa, who used an alkyl-exchange reaction involving an 1,1-di-halo-alkane. That reaction produces norcarane when the starting material is cyclohexene, and uses a copper zinc couple to add a carbene to an alkene. The bonds in this molecule can be described with sp two hybridization according to Walsh. This product of the Simmons-Smith Reaction was first predicted by Baeyer to be characterized by a high angle strain. FTP, name this cyclic alkane consisting of three carbon atoms.

One of these compounds is the starting material in the Danishefsky total synthesis of taxol. The hydroxy form of these compounds is obtained from phenyl esters in the Fries [FREEZ] rearrangement. The iodoform test gives a positive result for the methyl type of these compounds, which generally do not react with Tollens' reagent. These compounds react with Grignard reagents to form tertiary alcohols, and are obtained from the oxidation of secondary alcohols. These compounds are tautomers of enols, and their simplest example is used in nail polish remover. For 10 points, name these compounds that have two R groups bonded to a carbonyl.

This type of organic molecule is oxidized in the Swern oxidation. They can also be oxidized by Pyridinium chlorochromate, which is abbreviated PCC. Tosyl chloride converts these into tosylates, and thionyl chloride reacts with them to form alkyl chlorides. They react with carboxylic acids in the Fischer esterification. Reacting aldehydes with an organomagnesium halide reagent creates these. Sulfuric acid can be used to dehydrate these in elimination reactions governed by Zaitsev's rule. Tertiary ones are reactive with hydrogen halides in the SN1 reaction. For 10 points, name these organic compounds that have a hydroxyl group, an example of which is ethanol.

This functional group is the product of the Petasis reaction, which combines a carbonyl compound with one of these to create a more complicated one. The Kabachnik-Fields reaction combines one of these with a carbonyl and a hydro-phosphoryl in a reaction that is often the first step in creating peptidomimetic compounds. The Mannich reaction creates a secondary or tertiary one, while the product of the Strecker synthesis includes one of these and a carboxylic acid.  Often created by the reaction of an imine and sodium cyano-borohydride, this is, FTP, what functional group that consists of three hydrogen or carbon atoms singly bonded to one nitrogen atom?

protonate the DEAD reagent in the Mitsunobu reaction. A silyl group migrates via a pentavalent intermediate to form an oxygen bond in these compounds in the Brook rearrangement, while an intermediate organo-chromium halide adds onto an aldehyde and yields one of these after workup in the Nozaki Hiyama reaction. Ethers can be converted to these in the presence of an organolithium reagent and THF via the Wittig rearrangement and the? Fischer esterification proceeds with the dehydration of one of these and carboxylic acids. For 10 points, identify these compounds which consist of a hydroxyl group and are exemplified by ethanol and methanol.

Quaternary ammonium salt may be used to create amides and these compounds in a reaction named for Hoffmann. Eliminations following Zaitsev's rule also create these compounds, the Z-type of which are created in a Wittig reaction. These compounds may be synthesized by reacting a ketone or aldehyde with a phosphorus ylide. The bond in these compounds consists of a pi bond and a sigma bond and they are sometimes referred to as olefins. Examples of these include butene and ethylene. For 10 points, name these compounds characterized by the presence of a carbon-carbon double bond.

The phenyl type of these compounds are converted to hydroxy aryl ketones in the Fries rearrangement, and Dieckmann and Claisen condensations occur between these compounds. Under basic conditions, they can be hydrolyzed to form soaps, as triglycerides are examples of these compounds. They can be produced by refluxing the reagents with a sulfuric acid catalyst in a reaction named for Fischer. Characterized by a carbon atom single-bonded to one oxygen atom and double-bonded to another, they are often fruity-smelling. For 10 points, name these organic compounds formed in the reaction of a carboxylic acid with an alcohol.

One method of creating these compounds involves hydroboration and oxidation of alkenes. The Jones reagent converts these into carboxylic acids, and two of these are needed for the creation of an ether in the Williamson synthesis. Oxidation of the secondary type of these creates ketones, and they include one that is produced during petroleum refining or by fermentation of sugars and has formula C2H6O, the "ethyl" variety. For 10 points, name this class of organic compound that contains a hydroxyl group, the simplest of which is methanol.

An alpha-halo sulfone is converted to one of these molecules in the Ramberg-Backlund reaction. Markovnikov's rule describe the reaction of a protic acid with one of these molecules. The E-isomer of one of these molecules can be produced by applying the Schlosser Modification to a reaction of a carbonyl compound and a ylide. Produced in the (*) Wittig Reaction, for 10 points, name these hydrocarbons with carbon-carbon double bonds, also known as olefins.

Phenyl versions of these form acylium ions in a rearrangement catalyzed by Lewis acids, a reaction that can also occur via photochemical excitation, while an example of another reaction involving them uses high heat to create acrylic acid. In addition to the Fries rearrangement and their namesake pyrolysis, molecules with two of their functional group can react intramolecularly to form cyclic ketones, and these molecules are commonly created by another reaction that involves an alcohol and carboxylic acid with acid catalysis. Involved in reactions named for Dieckmann and Fischer, this is, for 10 points, what class of molecules that contains a carbonyl group adjacent to an oxygen atom bound to a carbon atom and known for their odors?

Topic 4: 

These features may create breccia-filled diatremes, which can form maars when they reach the surface. These features subglacial type can cause floods called jokulhaups, and flood basalts form when they affect oceans.(*) Lahars form when water mixes with pyroclastic flows from these geological features, and the collapse of craters in these features creates calderas. These features shield type is exemplified by Mauna Loa. For 10 points, name these geological features, ruptures in the crust through which ash and magma escape.

The absence of these features can cause isostatic rebound. These features create paternoster lakes and parallel ones are responsible for artes. These features also create kames, which often form with kettle lakes. These features often form from firn in cirques and their retreat creates eskers and drumlins and leaves moraine. For 10 points, name these features that can be tidewater, alpine, or continental, slow-moving rivers of ice.

When formed underneath glaciers, these landforms can cause devastating floods known as jokulhaups (yoe-kull-howps). A pyroclastic flow may stem from these landforms, which can excrete material known as pahoehoe (pa-HOY-hoy) and aa (ah-ah). Broadly, these landforms are classified into composite, shield, and cinder types. For 10 points, name these landforms, prominent around the Earth's "ring of fire," which are formed where magma can reach the earth's surface.

When formed underneath glaciers, these landforms can cause devastating floods known as jokulhaups (yoe-kull-howps). A pyroclastic flow may stem from these landforms, which can excrete material known as pahoehoe (pa-HOY-hoy) and aa (ah-ah). Broadly, these landforms are classified into composite, (*) shield, and cinder types. For 10 points, name these landforms, prominent around the Earth's "ring of fire," which are formed where magma can reach the earth's surface.

Some kinds of these locations are named for Benioff and Wadati. A type of volcano that can be found near these regions composes the Ring of Fire. These regions are the opposite of divergent boundaries. For 10 points, name these regions that are formed when an oceanic plate slides beneath another tectonic plate, pressing the lower plate deeper into the Earth.

The surfaces of these objects often feature bands known as ogives, and they are also responsible for crafting roche moutonnees, or sheep-backs. These bodies are formed via the compactification of nv into firn. They are also responsible for the creation of (*) rock flour, and deposit erratics as well as till in landforms such as eskers and drumlins. Many of them begin at a cirque and end at a morraine, located at opposite ends of a u-shaped valley. Coming in continental and alpine varieties, for 10 points, identify these large masses of slow-moving ice.

Germany's Maastricht Formation contains fossils from this geologic period, which saw the split of Africa and South America. It is geologically significant both for the large amounts of chalk formed during this period and for a layer of iridium known as the K-T boundary, which is believed to have been deposited by an asteroid. This period also saw diversification of dinosaur species, including the spawning of Tyrannosaurus rex. For 10 points, name this final period of the Mesozoic Era, whose end saw the mass extinction of the dinosaurs.

The absence of these geological features can cause isostatic rebound, while the presence of these features can cause crust subsidence. These features make rock flour that can create milky-colored bodies of water. The retreat of these features can form sharp ridges called artes (uh-RETZ). The lower parts of these features are known as ablation zones, and these features use plucking and abrasion to create drumlin fields and eskers. For 10 points, name these large bodies of moving ice.

Alternating light and dark bands in these objects are called ogives. They can form U-shaped valleys with knife-like rock ridges called aretes between them. They lose mass in their zones of ablation, and they create teardrop-shaped hills called drumlins. Temperate ones are so called because they are at melting point year-round, and they form sediments characterized as terminal and lateral. For 10 points, name these entities that form moraines lakes when their debris dams a stream and that form icebergs when they break apart.

The extinction event preceding this period saw the dying off of the conodonts. The Morrison Formation is from this period. This period is named for a mountain range north of the Alps in Switzerland and France. The Solnhofen limestone contains fossils from this period, including Archaeopteryx. The Brachiosaurus and Apatosaurus first appeared in this period. This is the middle period of the Mesozoic Era. For 10 points, name this period occurring before the Cretaceous and after the Triassic.

Topic 5: 

A "checkerboard" variety of this procedure is undergone by reagents in the ELISA assay. Another type of this process is named after Karl Fischer and used to determine the amount of water in a sample. One type of this process utilizes bromthymol (BROM-thigh-mol) blue or phenolphthalein (FEEN-ulth-ALE-een) depending on the strength of the acid and base involved. Those components are added until an (*) equivalence point is reached. For 10 points, identify this laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of a solution by adding incremental amounts of another known solution.

A "checkerboard" variety of this procedure is undergone by reagents in the ELISA assay. Another type of this process is named after Karl Fischer and used to determine the amount of water in a sample. One type of this process utilizes bromthymol (BROM-thigh-mol) blue or phenolphthalein (FEEN-ulth-ALE-een) depending on the strength of the acid and base involved. Those components are added until an equivalence point is reached. For 10 points, identify this laboratory technique used to determine the concentration of a solution by adding incremental amounts of another known solution.

One form of this procedure is used to find trace amounts of moisture in a sample and is named for Karl Fischer. EDTA is often used in the complexometric form of this procedure. This procedure's namesake curve can be used to determine the acid dissociation constant. In the acid-base type of this procedure, indicators such as methyl orange are used to find the equivalence point. For 10 points, name this procedure which is used to find the concentration of a reagent.

This process is performed to determine a solutions ammonia content as part of the Kjeldahl Method. An acid known as EDTA is commonly used in its complexometric type, and this process acid-base type makes use of a burette until reaching the equivalence point. Bromothymol blue, methyl orange, and phenolphthalein are chemicals commonly used in this process as indicators. For 10 points, name this common lab technique used to determine the concentration of a solution.

The potentiometric form of this process involves measuring the potential difference between two cells and using the Nernst Equation. When this process is done using a polyprotic solution, there will be more than one equivalence point. At the half equivalence point of this process for a buffer solution, the pH equals the pKa, as shown by the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation. For 10 points, name this process that often makes use of indicators such as phenolphthalein (FEE-nul-THAY-leen) and a buret.

The Karl Fischer test is an example of this procedure used to determine water content in a sample. The amount of surfactant needed to achieve stabilization of a colloid can be determined by the zeta potential type of this process, and EDTA is commonly used to perform its namesake action on metal ions in solution in the compleximetric type of this process. Methyl orange can be used in the chemical or acid-base type of this technique, which employs that and other indicators to observe the equivalence point of a sample. For 10 points, name this laboratory technique  employed to determine the concentration of an unknown solution by slowly dripping in some solution of known concentration.

Amino acids are least soluble at the isoelectric point, a point on the curve associated with this lab technique. Finding the end point for this lab technique requires substances like (*) phenolphthalein and litmus, which are known as indicators. The curve associated with this technique has an inflection point when the amount of a reagent added from a buret is the same as the amount of analyte in the sample; that point is the equivalence point. For 10 points, name this technique that is used to determine the unknown concentration of a known reactant.

This processs complexometric type uses EDTA to detect metal ions. The back variety of this process is the standard type done in reverse, and some substances, when undergoing this process, produce a graph with multiple inflection points. [*] Polyprotic acids have more than one of those equivalence points, at which an indicator, such as phenolphthalein, will change color. Usually done with an acid and a base, for 10 points, name this laboratory technique that utilizes a burette and is used to find the concentration of a reactant by slowly adding it into a solution of known concentration.

One type based on zeta potentials can determine the point of flocculation. Eriochrome black T may be used along with EDTA, a chelating agent, to detect metal ions in the complexometric type of this process. The inflection point of this method's namesake curve is the equivalence point, where neutralization occurs, and where bromthymol blue, methyl orange, or phenolphthalein, the pH indicator, changes color. A method of volumetric analysis, for 10 points, name this chemical technique used to find the concentration of a reagent, performed using a burette.

The Fisher method uses this technique to measure the amount of water in organic materials. The Mohr and Volhard methods employ this technique to determine chlorine and silver concentrations. Iodine can be used to determine starch content in one version, and bromothymol blue is among the indicators used in another version. For 10 points, name this chemical analysis technique that often employs a burette, and which is often used to determine acid and base concentrations.

Topic 6: 

The larvae of some organisms of this phylum are called veligers. Organisms in this phylum feed through ribbons of tiny teeth called radula. Many organisms of this phylum can secrete calcium carbonate through their mantle to create a dorsal covering. Other members of this phylum can create spiral shells or produce pearls. Classes in this phylum include Cephalopoda and Gastropoda. For 10 points, name this phylum that includes organisms like snails, squid, and clams.

One class of this phylum is distinguished by the presence of a pharynx that opens into the gastrovascular (GAS-tro-VAS-kyoo-lurr) cavity and is known as the actinopharynx (ack-TIN-o-FAIR-inks). One member of this phylum, Chironex fleckeri (KY-ro-nex FLECK-er-eye), is in the class Cubozoa (CUBE-oh-ZO-uh). Its class Anthozoa (AN-tho-ZO-uh) contains corals. Organisms in this phylum are characterized by stinging cells known as nematocytes (nuh-MAT-oh-sites) and grow from a polyp to a medusa. For 10 points, what marine phylum includes sea anemone, hydra, and jellyfish?

One chytrid (KYE-trid) member of this group has been blamed for the worldwide decline in frog populations, and the Salem witch trials have been blamed on another species that infests rye with ergot. Lichens consist of algae and a member of this kingdom, whose species reproduce through spores and have hyphae bodies with chitin cell walls. For 10 points, name this kingdom of important decomposers like molds, yeasts, and mushrooms.

Classes in this phylum include Polyplacophora, while another organism in this phylum is the geoduck [GOOEY-duck]. Many classes in it have a broad muscular foot and a scraping tongue called a radula. All organisms in this phylum exhibit bilateral symmetry and contain a mantle cavity, and it includes the largest invertebrate, the colossal squid.  For 10 points, name this diverse invertebrate phylum that includes clams, snails, and octopuses.

Calcarea and hexactinellida are groups within this phylum that have excretory structures known as oscula. These organisms, whose bodies consist of the gelatinous mesohyl, depend on cells called choanocytes to produce sperm because they do not have reproductive organs. Most of these organisms are hermaphrodites and all are sessile. With bodies consisting of spicules of silica or calcium carbonate are, for 10 points, what phylum of organisms more commonly known as sponges?

Some members of this phylum possess pincer-like pedicellariae, and those species also possess a madreporite plate and a ring canal. A calcium carbonate material called stereom forms skeletal plates in organisms of this phylum, some members of which possess spines and a mouth called Aristotles Lantern. Classes in this phylum include (*) crinoidea and asteroidea, and members of it possess a water vascular system and tube feet for locomotion. Adult members of this phylum typically exhibit five-way radial symmetry. For ten points, name this phylum of animals that includes sea urchins and starfish.

Some members of this phylum have magnetite-coated teeth and eight overlapping shell plates, while others are covered in photophores and can turn themselves inside out. Members of this phylum have a sense organ called the osphradia, and an odontophore supporting a radula. They were the first to develop an efficient excretory system. Other features of this phylum include muscular feet, which may secrete mucus, and a mantle, which may secrete a shell. For 10 points, name this phylum containing bivalves, gastropods, and cephalopods, which includes animals like snails, squids and clams.

Larvae of creatures in this phylum can be lecithotrophic or planktotrophic. Some species in this phylum possess pedicellariae, and one organism in this phylum has contributed extensively to coral reef destruction by eating coral polyps. One class in this phylum can eject its internal organs to deter predators, and these organisms possess water vascular systems. Along with Chordata, members of this phylum are deuterostomes, and all members have radial symmetry. For 10 points, name this phylum that includes animals like sea cucumbers and starfish.

Many of these organisms contain organs of Bojanus, and some types of them produce a free swimming larva called a veliger. Most members of this phylum possess a chitinous ribbon used for food intake, which is supported by the odontophore. Many of their organs are contained in the(*) visceral mass, including the aforementioned radula. Some members of this phylum secrete calciferous shells from the mantle, and it includes the class Cephalopoda. For 10 points, name this phylum of animals that includes bivalves such as clams, as well as squid and octopi.

This phylum's skeleton is composed of miniscule networks of calcium carbonate known as stereom. These animals possess ampullae in their tube feet, which is part of their water vascular system used for feeding, moving, and breathing. Examples of this phylum include class Asteroidea. The only deuterostome phylum other than the Chordates, for 10 points, name this phylum which includes sea urchins, starfish, and sand dollars.

Topic 7: 

Its late-onset form, called LOTS, is not fatal, but its infantile and juvenile varieties are. Its symptoms resemble Sandhoff disease, but it is caused by a mutation on chromosome 15 rather than 5. Reduced activity of the enzyme hexosaminidinase A, caused by a mutation in the HEXA gene, leads to accumulation of the ganglioside GM2 in the brain's neurons. This autosomal recessive disease causes the appearance of a cherry-red spot on the retina. Other symptoms include an inability to swallow as well as blindness, deafness, and paralysis. For 10 points, name this lysosomal storage disorder which is usually fatal by age 5 and is most common in Ashkenazi Jewish populations.

One drug used to treat this condition is Clozapine, which is combined with estradiol in treatments for postmenopausal women with this condition. One type of this disease is the hebephrenic type, and the catatonic type of this disease leads to sufferers becoming nearly immobile. Sufferers of this disorder frequently (*) hallucinate and have delusions of grandeur. For 10 points, name this mental disease which can come in a paranoid type and whose sufferers will often talk out loud to themselves.

The most common species of this disease is vivax, while the deadliest is falciparum. The sporozites of this disease become schizonts, which become merozites, which destroy red blood cells. Artemisinin (AR-tuh-MIS-uh-nin) has replaced (*) quinine (KWHY-nine) as the preferred drug to treat this disease, which is characterized by recurrent fevers. Caused by Plasmodium protozoa, it is prevented by spraying DDT and hanging nets around beds. For 10 points, name this disease spread by mosquitoes.

The most common species of this disease is vivax, while the deadliest is falciparum. The sporozites of this disease become schizonts, which become merozites, which destroy red blood cells. Artemisinin (AR-tuh-MIS-uh-nin) has replaced quinine (KWHY-nine) as the preferred drug to treat this disease, which is characterized by recurrent fevers. Caused by Plasmodium protozoa, it is prevented by spraying DDT and hanging nets around beds. For 10 points, name this disease spread by mosquitoes.

One type of this illness characterized by arrhythmias and brachycardia is named for Emery and Dreifuss. The presence of Gowers sign and elevated creatine kinase are used to diagnose various types of this disease, which has X-linked varieties named for Becker and Duchenne. Fibrosis and excess adipose tissue gradually replace normal (*) myofibers in this degenerative disease. Progressive scoliosis is a common sign of this disease, which leads to deformation of the legs and pelvis, loss of the ability to balance, and eventual respiratory distress and death. For 10 points, name this disease characterize by wasting of the skeletal muscle.

One variety of this condition was often mistaken for Friedreich's Ataxia until the 1980s, and its more common variety is closely related to Sandhoff disease. A common test for it involves the body's breakdown of 4-methyl-lumbelli-ferone. This disease is caused by a failure to metabolize GM2 gangliosides in the lysosomes of the brain. That is because a mutation in the HEXA gene causes aberrant activity of hexosaminidase A, leading to this disorder. It is characterized by a cherry-red spot on the retina of affected individuals and usually leads to death in its sufferers by age two. For 10 points, name this recessive genetic disorder prevalent in Ashkenazi Jews.

The DOTS method was originally developed to ensure treatment of this disease, and first-line drugs to treat this illness include isoniazid and rifampicin. This disease can be diagnosed with the Mantoux test, also known as a PPD test, in which a bacterial extract is injected just under the (*) skin. Common symptoms of this disease, which is caused by mycobacterium infection, include high fever, weight loss, and a bloody cough. For 10 points, give this disease that usually afflicts the lungs but also commonly advances into the spine when untreated, and was once called consumption.

Brushfield spots are more common in sufferers of this disease, many of whom also suffer from duodenal atresia. About 20% of people with it also suffer from transient leukemia, and they have a higher incidence of ALL and AML. The mechanism of this disease may partially be due to overexpression of miR-155 and miR-802 resulting in decreased MeCP2 expression and dysregulation of NFAT. The increased development of Alzheimers in people with this disease is due to overexpression of APP and SOD1. This condition can result from a Robertsonian translocation involving chromosome 14, and sufferers have a small chin, large tongue, an extra fold in the eyelid, and an IQ in the 50s. For 10 points, name this genetic condition characterized by an extra chromosome 21.

This disease can be treated with the drug tacrine, which blocks the functions of cholinesterase [kolin-ester-ase]. This disease causes degeneration of the nucleus basalis of Meynert. Though originally hypothesized to be caused by the tau proteins, the plaques caused by beta amyloid protein cause this diease. This disease, named for a German neurologist, is characterized by decreased acetylcholine levels. For 10 points, name common form of dementia, a disease of the elderly characterized by memory loss.

One drug used to treat this condition is Clozapine, which is combined with estradiol in treatments for postmenopausal women with this condition. One type of this disease is the hebephrenic type, and the catatonic type of this disease leads to sufferers becoming nearly immobile. Sufferers of this disorder frequently hallucinate and have delusions of grandeur. For 10 points, name this mental disease which can come in a paranoid type and whose sufferers will often talk out loud to themselves.

Topic 8: 

This scientist solved the terramycin problem as well as suggested beta-lactam rather than Robert Robinson's suggested solution of thiazolidine-oxazolone concerning penicillin. He worked with Geoffrey Wilkinson on ferrocene, while he discussed the synthesis of cephalosporin in his 1965 Nobel Prize lecture. The Prevost reaction produces anti-diols, the opposite of the outcome of a reaction between iodine, acetate, and alkenes in a ? cis-hydroxylation named after this man. Kenichi Fukui and a colleague of this man were both awarded the 1981 Nobel Prize for work similar to that of his most famous result. FTP, name this American chemist, one of the namesakes of a doubly-eponymous set of rules predicting the stereochemistry of pericyclic reactions, along with Hoffman.

Willi Hennig proposed a system based on synapomorphies that replaced this man's system; that new system was cladistics. This man changed the Celsius scale such that water freezes at 0 and boils at 100, whereas Celsius himself had it the other way around. He at first proposed a Homo anthropomorpha, which he later renamed primates. He was also the first to group plants together based on how they reproduced. The first to classify organisms using the binomial nomenclature, for 10 points, name this Swedish biologist whose Systema Naturae proposed his system of taxonomical classification.

The superconducting Chevrel phase adopts this geometry, whose stability complex for formation can be found form the Irving-Williams series. They can isomerize via a reaction that forces them through a C-sub-2v intermediate or a D-sub-3h intermediate. Besides undergoing the Ray-Dutt or Bailar twists, their ligands can be arranged facially or meridonally. Werner complexes exhibit this formation, whose orbitals can be divided into the t-sub-2g and e-sub-g sets due to crystal field splitting. One of their axes may elongate to break degeneracy in the classic Jahn-Teller effect, and this geometry occurs in sulfur hexafloride, molybdenum hexacarbonyl, or any complex with no lone pairs and six ligands according to VSEPR theory. For 10 points, name this moleculer geometry which resembles an eight-faced solid.

mKate, tdTomato, and kindling protein are among the proteins that perform a similar function to this protein. Its T203Y mutant was based on the crystal structure of this protein's S65T mutant. An arginine at position 96 and a glutamate at position 222 are thought to catalyze a reaction in the Ser65-Tyr66-Gly67 sequence of its beta barrel. It was first purified by Osamu Shimomura, who along with Martin Chalfie and Roger Tsien shared the 2008 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work with it. For 10 points, name this protein isolated from Aequorea victoria, a jellyfish, which produces a colorful glow when exposed to blue light and which is often used as a reporter gene.

This scientist proposed that enzymes stabilize the transition state complex. While sick and in bed, this man worked out the existence of alpha helices. This man's namesake rules describe the structure of ionic crystalsm and he proposed the concept of (*) resonance in molecules. Along with three colleagues, he discovered that sickle cell anemia was caused by altered hemoglobin. This advocate of Vitamin C megadoses also proposed the idea of hybrid orbitals. For 10 points, name this only winner of both the Chemistry and Peace Nobels.

The central carbon atom of fenestranes has this molecular geometry, and reactions of substituents of complexes with this geometry are greatly accelerated when the trans ligand is a good pi acceptor. In crystal field theory, the d-orbitals of these complexes are split into four levels, giving it larger stabilization energy than the octahedral configuration. This geometry is occupied by low-spin d-8 complexes like Vaska's complex, the chemotherapy drug cisplatin, and a hydrogenation catalyst with a central rhodium atom and a series of triphenylphosphine ligands named for Wilkinson. According to VESPR, xenon tetraflouride occupies this configuration since it has 2 lone pairs and 4 ligands. For 10 points, name this molecular geometry which is flat with four sides.

Louis Pasteur studied the impact of this phenomenon on polarized light using tartrate crystals. Another example of this is observed by bombarding Azobenzene with certain photons. The topological type of this occurs in DNA molecules with different linking numbers. Historically important examples include dextrotartaric acid and levotartaric acid, as well as comparisons between silver cyanate and silver fulminate made by Friedrich Whler [VOH-lur]. The type of this that impacts functional groups is cis/trans, which is a geometric form of this phenomenon. The chain and position types are structural forms. Name this phenomenon exhibited by different molecules with the same chemical formula.

A 2007 study found that a bacterial glycosidase could remove the surface antigens used in this classification scheme. This classification scheme is often appended with a plus or minus indicating the presence or absence of a protein first discovered in the rhesus monkey. This classification scheme was invented by Karl Landsteiner, who explained why some blood transfusions failed. For 10 points, name this classification scheme in which a person is classified as A, B, AB, or O.

Many examples of this relationship involve components that may be separated by reaction with tartaric acid. This relationship, first discovered between cyanic and fulminic acid, may emerge when steric effects prevent a compound from rotating around otherwise freely rotating bonds. (*) Tautomers are rapidly interconverting examples of one form of this relationship. Another example of this relationship occurs between cis and trans examples of the same alkene, a type of diastereomerism (die-ah-STARE-ee-AH-mer-ism). Another example of this relationship, called constitutional, exists between tert- and n-butane. For 10 points, name this relationship describing molecules with different structural formulas but the same molecular formula.

These organisms produce a prolamin storage protein called zein which is used to synthesize vicara fibers. Experiments by DeVries and Correns explained the "xenia" effect observed in this organism by invoking double fertilization. These organisms, which have distinctive male inflorescence are closely related to the "teosinte" grasses. Experiments on the triploid aleurone layers of its endosperm led to the discovery of the Ac/Ds system which confers varying colour patters in this organism; that experiment led to a Nobel Prize for Barbara McClintock's discovery of transposons. For 10 points, identify this crop which provides the ingredients for tortillas.

Topic 9: 

This element is bonded to sodium and aluminum in cryolite, and it can be found naturally in minerals such as topaz and apatite. It was first isolated in the lab by Henri Moissan, and a compound containing six atoms of this element is used during the uranium enrichment process. Neil Bartlett created the first known noble gas compound using (*) xenon and this element. This element is found in the polymer Teflon and is also bonded to carbon and chlorine in Freon. It is an extremely strong oxidizing agent, since it has the highest electronegativity out of all the elements. For ten points, identify this lightest halogen with atomic number 9 and chemical symbol F.

Though not lithium or potassium, this element is commonly used with an alcohol to reduce ammonia in the Birch reduction. This element's carbonate is produced by the Solvay process and is called soda ash. This element's hydroxide, a common ingredient of soap, is called lye. Burning bright yellow in a flame test, this element has a bicarbonate called baking soda and a chloride called table salt. For 10 points, name this element symbolized Na.

This compound is produced in a process that uses Glover towers to remove nitrogen oxide called the lead chamber process. This compound and a gas that generates it are found in a solution called oleum, which is formed with a vanadium pentoxide catalyst in the contact process. Also called oil of vitriol, it is a major component of car batteries, Venuss atmosphere, and acid rain. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

This compound is produced in a process that uses Glover towers to remove nitrogen oxide called the lead chamber process. This compound and a gas that generates it are found in a solution called oleum, which is formed with a vanadium pentoxide catalyst in the contact process. Also called oil of vitriol, it is a major component of car batteries, Venuss atmosphere, and (*) acid rain. For 10 points, name this acid with formula H2SO4.

The Castner process produces this metal via the electrolysis of its hydroxide, and the Solvay process produces soda ash, this element's carbonate. This metal reacts violently with water, sometimes explosively bursting in flames upon contact. Lye is the caustic hydroxide of this element, and this element burns bright yellow in the flame test. Baking soda is its bicarbonate, while common table salt is its chloride. For 10 points, name this chemical element symbolized Na.

Along with sodium and aluminum, this element makes up the uncommon mineral cryolite. This element bound to carbon can be used to create Teflon. Freon was a brand name given to another combination of this element with carbon and chlorine, which is considered a key agent in ozone layer depletion. This halogen has an electronegativity of 4.0, making it the most electronegative element. For 10 points, name this element whose anion is used in a process that makes public water healthier for teeth.

This substance reacts with sodium chloride in the Mannheim process. This substance is created industrially through a process that employs vanadium (vuh-NAY-dee-um) oxide as a catalyst, the contact process. A certain trioxide combined with this compound is called oleum (OH-lee-um), and this compound's two hydrogen atoms per ionizable molecule makes it diprotic. For 10 points, name this strong acid found in car batteries with formula H-two S-O four.

Two elements from this group are exchanged in an SN2 reaction named for Finklestein. The heaviest of these elements is produced by bombarding bismuth with alpha particles. With a name meaning salt-formers, this group contains elements in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases at standard temperature and pressure. One of these elements is commonly found in the thyroid, while another is the most electronegative. For 10 points, name this group containing astatine, iodine, fluorine, and chlorine.

This element can be produced via fusion of two carbon atoms at 600 megakelvins in a star with at least three solar masses, or in a Downs Cell or by electrolysis in the Castner process. Vapor lamps made of this element are used for street lighting and give off a distinctive yellow light, and it was discovered through electrolysis by Humphry Davy. This soft, silvery metal is exchanged with potassium in a namesake pump. For 10 points, identify this element with atomic number 11, which forms a common condiment with chloride.

This element, whose most stable form is the rhombic (ROM-bick) allotrope (AL-oh-trope), is extracted by pumping superheated steam into deposits in the Frasch (FRASH) process. Thiols (THY-olls) are alcohol analogs with oxygen replaced by this element. A platinum or vanadium (vuh-NAY-dee-um) catalyst is used in the contact process, which synthesizes a compound consisting of oxygen, hydrogen, and this element. Although blue in flame test, it is yellow as a solid and a liquid. This element forms cross-links in rubber vulcanization. For 10 points, name this element with atomic number 16.