Re-org and rewrite of distribution, installation, and build docs

[jwnimmer-tri]

There are numerous known issue and usability hurdles with Drake's documentation for how users consume Drake releases, nightlies, source builds, pydrake, etc.

It will be most efficient to take a big swing at all of these at once in a single editing pass, because some of the problems relate to how the information is organized, rather than the specific facts being presented.

I will link all of the relevant issues here:

• Docs for using Drake linters from downstream Bazel projects #9277 Docs for using Drake linters from downstream Bazel projects
• Don't use /opt in drake_cmake_installed README docs #10550 /opt is read-only on mac
• Document deprecation tools and how-to #10605 Document deprecation policy and tools
• doc python: Add instructions for debugging bindings from CMake install #10624 Add instructions for debugging python bindings from CMake install
• doc: Need to improve docs for CMake build options (e.g. SNOPT) #12175 Need to improve docs for CMake build options (e.g. SNOPT)
• Not clear how to install drake in installation-from-source instructions #12306 Not clear how to install drake in installation-from-source instructions
• cmake: Add option to easily pass more (advanced) options to Bazel #13066 How to use bazelrc
• doc: Should add tips on debugging PYTHONPATH issues #13187 Should add tips on debugging PYTHONPATH issues
• doc: Clarify minimum macOS version for pydrake #13202 Clarify minimum macOS version for pydrake
• doc: Note requirement of X server for rendering #13210 Note requirement of X server for rendering
• doc: python_bindings.rst should have installation instructions moved to installation doc pages #13500 python_bindings.rst should have installation instructions moved to installation doc pages
• document the fact that gurobi and mosek are not available in the binary builds #13603 document the fact that gurobi and mosek are not available in the binary builds
• Crash in Drake Visualizer in a docker #13639 Crash in drake visualizer
• [drake_bazel_external] Commercial solvers drake-external-examples#108 drake_bazel_external vs commercial solvers
• Provide preliminary ROS1 and/or ROS2 support w/ catkin and/or ament, document recommended workflow #9500 [citation] Provide preliminary ROS1 support w/ catkin, document recommended workflow
• ARM64 support #13514 [citation] ARM64 support
• Dropping Ubuntu 18.04 (Bionic) support #13391 [citation] Dropping Ubuntu 18.04 (Bionic) support
• #14685 In from_binary.html, the "binary packages" links to an unhelpful github comment.

Items marked as [citation] should be cited from the new documentation to encourage further discussion or provide context, but the issue will not be resolved by documentation changes.

[jamiesnape]

I would add the following (feel free to merge up top):

• drake-lcm-spy gives NoClassDefFoundError in Docker #14029 drake-lcm-spy gives NoClassDefFoundError in Docker
• cart-pole example throws exception in cmake project #13924 cart-pole example throws exception in cmake project
• Support macOS Big Sur 11.0 on x86_64 #13648 [citation] Support macOS Big Sur 11.0 on x86_64